The Graduation Paper
Abbreviations
or Shortenings in modern English: Tendentions of their development
The
review
In the process
of communication words and word-groups should be shortened. The causes of
shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes
changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations,
acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is
increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the
shortest possible time.
The present graduation
bachelor’s paper is entitled “Abbreviations
or Shortenings in modern English: Tendentions of their development”.
The given Graduation Paper gives us a notion for the Abbreviations, their
classification and stylistic functions in modern linguistics.
The
chief purpose of this paper is to detect those
peculiarities of process of abbreviation formation in modern English. One of
the principle objectives is to enlarge upon development of modern
English lexical units
The
actuality of the given Graduation Paper is caused by the dynamics of the
development of modern English. Abbreviations make our life easier. However,
when using them, we shouldn't overdo it. The abbreviations, the subject
of study, are the most intensively developing units of English. Consequently,
there is the distinctive interest to abbreviations in modern linguistics.
Abbreviating work or academic titles is common practice in
the UK. It was resumed that people in business got used many abbreviations
mostly because economic terms tend to be too long. It is hard to make a list of
them because there are so many of them. The best thing to do is to learn them
progressively.
Graphical
abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in
written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are
used for the economy of space and effort in writing.
The first (theoretical) part starts with a detailed definition of abbreviations in general. Having dwelled at some length on the notion of shortenings and its divisions, we proceed to the stylistic functions of abbreviations.
The second (analytical) part of our research work presents the investigation of a broadly based selection of different types of abbreviations according to their classification and stylistic functions. The material of the scientific study comprises analysis of article on technological terminology “The Evolution of Third-generation Cellular Standards”. The analysis of the rest abbreviation groups in scientific texts is based on the analysis of the modern dictionaries: Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words; The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English; The Longman Register of New Words; Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs; Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English.
To say in
brief the represented investigation also identifies and formulates the basic
characteristics and tendencies of English shortenings. The method that has been
adopted to explore the topic and carry out the analysis combines descriptive,
historical and comparative approaches.
In the
conclusion the major results of the investigation are assessed and
summarized. It was concluded that the abundance of abbreviations
is the characteristic feature of newspaper style of modern English language. It
was determined that the process of global integration plays the leading
role in the activization and development of abbreviations in modern English.
The
present graduation paper provides the list of references, appendix and bibliography.
The present bachelor’s paper investigates the problem from the point of view of
modern development and proposes a lot of comparisons and examples of English
wide-spread and rare shortenings. Various publicistic and scientific texts
serve as the factual material for the research carried out in the analytical
part.
Having investigated the factual material, the author of
the present work arrives at the conclusion that the process of global
integration plays the leading role in the activization and development of abbreviations
in modern English.
The author hopes that these suggestions and observations
will prove to be useful and helpful contribution to the enormous field of
English philological research.
Summary
The
present graduation bachelor’s paper is
entitled “Abbreviations
or Shortenings in modern English: Tendentions of their development”. The given Graduation Paper
gives us a notion for the Abbreviations, their classification and stylistic
functions in modern linguistics.
The
chief purpose of this paper is to detect those
peculiarities of process of abbreviation formation in modern English. One of
the principle objectives is to enlarge upon development of modern
English lexical units. The bachelor paper comprises the introduction, the
theoretical part (the first chapter), the analytical (practical, the second
chapter) part, the conclusion, the list of references, the appendix and
bibliography.
The
actuality of the given Graduation Paper is caused by the dynamics of the development
of modern English. Abbreviations make our life easier. However, when using
them, we shouldn't overdo it. The abbreviations, the subject of study, are
the most intensively developing units of English. Consequently,
there is the distinctive interest to abbreviations in modern linguistics.
The
introduction clarifies the choice of the topic and the importance
of the scientific analysis of formal prose, defines the chief goal, principle
objectives and the material of investigation. The introductory part, as well,
describes the main method that we have applied to the analysis conducted in the
analytical part of our research.
The
first (theoretical) part starts with a detailed definition of abbreviations in
general. Having dwelled at some length on the notion of shortenings and its
divisions, we proceed to the stylistic functions of abbreviations. In
accordance with the given classification, the shortenings are subdivided into several
groups:
-
Graphical
abbreviations;
-
Types
of initials, peculiarities of their pronunciation;
-
Lexical
shortenings of words, their reference to styles;
-
Blends;
-
Back
formations.
In the theoretical part we attempt to outline general stylistic
functions of the abbreviations and its connection with other functional styles of
English. It gives
us a conception of the major characteristics of the abbreviations and of the
main ways of their formation in modern English.
The oldest
group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this
type of abbreviation is not typical. The second one helps to follow the
stylistic peculiarities and functions of the abbreviations in modern English.
It was resumed
that initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical
abbreviations.
In some cases
the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special
dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. There are three types
of initialisms in English: initialisms with alphabetical reading; initialisms
which are read as if they are words; initialisms which coincide with English
words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms.
It will be
explained that abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we
have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to
the same part of speech as the primary word. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation,
but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs. But mostly abbreviated forms of
verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns. Adjectives can
be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with
suffixation. As a rule, pronouns, numerals, interjections conjunctions are not
abbreviated.
Lexical
abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is
clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the
word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word.
This type of abbreviation is called apocope.
The second (analytical) part of our research work presents the investigation of a broadly based selection of different types of abbreviations according to their classification and stylistic functions.
According to
the texts belonging to various functional styles of official speech, namely the
publicist (newspaper) style and the scientific style were defined the following
groups of abbreviations:
-
Common abbreviations;
-
Abbreviations
as scientific words;
-
Abbreviations of American origin;
-
Innovations
in American English;
-
Abbreviations
as lexical units of business English;
-
The
most common acronyms in the areas of networks.
The material of the scientific study comprises analysis of article on technological terminology “The Evolution of Third-generation Cellular Standards”. The analysis of the rest abbreviation groups in scientific texts is based on the analysis of the dictionaries: Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words; The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English; The Longman Register of New Words; Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs; Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English; Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English; Trofimova Z. Dictionary of New Words and New Meanings.
In different
countries, different alphabets and rules for coding currency units, date, time,
numbers, etc. are in use. Sorting algorithms for verbal texts present a special
kind of problem. English and culture have developed in close contacts with
several languages and cultures, so we do not possess unique rules and
algorithms to represent the above-mentioned data. Agreements developed in
practical life need to be presented in the form of a standard. In most cases,
it is possible to lean on international standards, yet they have to be somewhat
extended and specified according to the peculiarities of the European languages
and culture.
That’ why the practical part (the second chapter
and Appendix I)
is devoted to demonstration of stylistic functions of abbreviated forms in
modern English.
To say in
brief our investigation also identifies and formulates the basic
characteristics and tendencies of English shortenings. The method that has been
adopted to explore the topic and carry out the analysis combines descriptive,
historical and comparative approaches.
In the
conclusion the major results of the investigation are assessed and
summarized. It was concluded that the abundance of abbreviations
is the characteristic feature of newspaper style of modern English language. It
was determined that the process of global integration plays the leading
role in the activization and development of abbreviations in modern English.
It was also
determined that there is a difference between acronyms and abbreviations. An
acronym is usually formed by taking the first initials of a phrase or
compounded-word and using those initials to form a word that stands for
something.
Graphical
abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in
written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are
used for the economy of space and effort in writing.
There
are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we
have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English
equivalents in the full form. Obviously, that the rushing to clearness
discovers expression in application of legible grammar constructions and
lexical units, and also in the wide use of a nomenclature. As a rule, the
placed terms will be utilized conventional, though meet and terminoids (terms,
having circulation in a narrow orb), which considerably hamper translation. The
rushing to a multiplicity expresses in wide application of infinitive,
gerundial and subordinate clauses, abbreviations (cuttings) and
conventional signs.
It’s known
that in the process of communication words and word-groups should be shortened.
The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By
extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern
English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are
formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give
more and more information in the shortest possible time.
More over, nowadays the computer systems hardware and especially the software are more and more often adjusted to the cultural and language peculiarities of a specific country and nation.
The present graduation paper provides the list of references and bibliography
. The present bachelor’s paper investigates the problem from the point of view of modern development and proposes a lot of comparisons and examples of English wide-spread and rare shortenings. Various publicistic and scientific texts serve as the factual material for the research carried out in the analytical part.
Contents
Introduction
Chapter I. The
main characteristics of abbreviations and their appliance in modern English
§ 1.1. Classification
groups of abbreviations, the main differences between them
§ 1.2. Graphical
abbreviations
§ 1.3. Types
of initials, peculiarities of their pronunciation
§ 1.4. Lexical
shortenings of words, their reference to styles
§ 1.5. Blends
§ 1.6. Back
formation
§ 1.7. The
peculiarities of appliance of abbreviations in modern English
Chapter II.
The stylistic functions of the abbreviations in modern English
§ 2.1. Common abbreviations
§ 2.2. Abbreviations
as scientific words
§ 2.3. Abbreviations of American origin
§ 2.4. Innovations
in American English
§ 2.5.
Abbreviations as lexical units of business English
§ 2.6. The most common acronyms
in the areas of networks
Conclusion
Appendix I
Sources
Introduction
Our
intention in this Graduation Paper is to provide the detailed
explanation for the Abbreviations. The emphasis will be on the definitions
given by different lexicologists, on the origin, structure and style usage of
them.
The topic of
the present bachelor’s paper is the significance of abbreviation-process
impact on the modern English language in conditions of the world
integration and globalization in the course of human activities. All people
round the world have the tendency to short the lexical units. The peculiarities
of development of the medium by which speakers of a language communicate their
thoughts and feelings to others, the tool with which they conduct their
business or the government, and the vehicle by which the science, the culture
has been transmitted is surely worth of study. It is reasonable to assume that
a liberally educated person should know something of the conventions of the
foreign language we learn, the lexical changes of its vocabulary together with
the sources from which that vocabulary has been enriched.
All the
above-mentioned aspects are gathered under the single name of the English
language in the present work thus it is fruitful to discuss and examine
in most detail the evolution of the modern English language which is
marked by the greatest influence of abbreviations.
In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. We can suppose that in Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time.
There are also
linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of
rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings
from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we
have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing
«fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan,
tan etc.
They have
been readily accepted by the people and handed down to the present day, because
they have a universal value. We can find abbreviations, which fit any business
situation and this gives them general application.
Abbreviations
are used to save time and space, and to make long names of
organizations and long technical terms easier to remember and less tedious to
refer to repeatedly in an extended piece of writing such as a newspaper article
or textbook. In such contexts, if the abbreviation is not a very common one,
the long name or technical term is often given in full at the first mention,
with the abbreviation in brackets after it. After that just the abbreviation is
used.
The
actuality of the given Graduation Paper is caused by the dynamics of
the development of modern English.
Abbreviations,
the subject of our analysis, make our life easier. However, when using them, we shouldn't overdo it. The abbreviations are the most intensively developing units of English. Consequently, there is the distinctive interest to abbreviations in modern linguistics.
The
chief purpose of this paper is to treat the above-mentioned lexical group in order
to demonstrate the significance of impact of the abbreviation forms on the
English language and to prove the fact that this influence is mostly
distinctive feature of the vocabulary of the language. The principle objectives
are as following: to show the significance of abbreviation forms considering
the texts of various functional styles, predominantly official one.
The structure
of the work is as follows. It comprises the theoretical part, the analytical (practical)
part, the conclusion, appendix and bibliography.
The
theoretical part (The First Chapter) embraces seven units according to the
main characteristics of abbreviations and their appliance in modern English. It
concerns the classification groups of abbreviations and the main differences
between them, which are divided into several groups:
-
Graphical
abbreviations;
-
Types
of initials, peculiarities of their pronunciation;
-
Lexical
shortenings of words, their reference to styles;
-
Blends;
-
Back
formation;
-
The
peculiarities of appliance of abbreviations in modern English.
In the
Graduation Paper we will base ourselves upon the definitions given by different
specialists, and as a conclusion we will give our own definition of
abbreviations. The examination of the Structure of abbreviations will be based
on the works of V. Adams, R.W. Burchfield, G.Canon, O. Jespersen, Ph. Howard,
D.W. Maurer, F.C. High, S. Potter, R. Quirk and M. Schlauch.
The first
chapter gives us a notion of the major characteristics of the abbreviations and
of the main ways of their formation in modern English. This chapter is also
devoted to delivering of classification of the abbreviations and the main
differences between them. Our study helps to follow the stylistic
peculiarities and functions of the abbreviations in modern English.
The
analytical part of the present work (The second Chapter) investigates the
stylistic functions of the abbreviations in modern English. According to the
texts belonging to various functional styles of official speech, namely the publicist
(newspaper) style and the scientific style were defined the following groups of
abbreviations:
-
Common abbreviations;
-
Abbreviations
as scientific words;
-
Abbreviations of American origin;
-
Innovations
in American English;
-
Abbreviations
as lexical units of business English;
-
The
most common acronyms in the areas of networks.
The study of publicist
style and of the most common acronyms in the areas of networks rests on the
analysis of newspaper article entitled “The Evolution
of Third-generation Cellular Standards”. The analysis of the rest
abbreviation groups in scientific texts is based on the analysis of the
dictionaries: Bloomsbury Dictionary of New Words; The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Current English; The Longman Register of New Words; Longman Dictionary of
Phrasal Verbs; Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English; Webster’s New World
Dictionary of American English; Trofimova Z. Dictionary of New Words and New
Meanings.[1]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To say in brief
the practical part (the second chapter) will be devoted to demonstration of stylistic functions of abbreviated forms in modern English. Our investigation also identifies and formulates the basic characteristics and tendencies of English shortenings. The method that has been adopted to explore the topic and carry out the analysis combines
descriptive, historical and comparative approaches. In
the conclusion the major results of the investigation will be assessed and summarized. The present graduation paper provides the list of references and bibliography
.
Chapter
I. The main characteristics of abbreviations and their appliance in modern
English
§
1.1. Classification groups of abbreviations, the main differences between them
Every day more
and more abbreviations appear, and old ones die. No sooner had we learned to
refer to the Common Market as the EC rather than the EEC, than it became the
EU.
Generally it
is acceptable to write abbreviations either with or without full stops, but the
trend is towards leaving them out, as in BBC or Prof S. Potter.[2] Punchy writing such as
that found in advertisements tends to leave out full stops, whereas formal
non-technical writing is more traditional, and full stops are often used.
There are
various kinds of abbreviation. The most common is the set of initials, for
example DIY for Do It Yourself, DSS for Department of Social
Security, gbh for grievous bodily harm, JCB for a machine
invented by Joseph Cyril Bamford.
Some abbreviations
are the first part of a longer word and are pronounced as words, not said as a
sequence of letters of the alphabet. Examples are ad and advert
from advertisement, bra from brassière, gym from
gymnasium, and limo from limousine.
Other
abbreviations made by cutting off the end of the word are not used in speech,
for example adv for adverb and cont for continued. If these need
to be read aloud, they are read as the unabbreviated full forms.
Some words lose bits in
the middle. Bdg stands for building; Chas for Charles. Dr,
ft, Mr, and Mrs are other examples. These are read aloud
as their unabbreviated full forms.
A few words lop off the
first part, for example bus and plane, though these are now so
well established that they are really no longer thought of as reduced forms,
but as words in their own right.
There is a significant
proportion of abbreviations which it is possible for an English speaker to
pronounce as words rather than as sequences of letters of the alphabet. For
example, NATO is said [nay-toe] and never [en eh tee oh]. Sets of
initials like NATO, and new forms made up of the first parts of two or
more words, such as OXFAM, are called acronyms. Further examples
are UNESCO, Amstrad, GATT, ACORN, dinky, Aids,
laser, ERNIE, and CLEAR. A few abbreviations are
pronounced both ways, VAT being the prime example.
Acronyms are often new
words. [3]The
word Nato did not exist before it began to be used as a quick way of
referring to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It is not, in fact, a very
typical English word, although it is easy enough for English speakers to
pronounce. COHSE, the Confederation of Health Service Employees, looks
un-English, but is pronounced [cosy].
Laser, on the other hand, looks
thoroughly at home in English. There are probably many people who are quite
unaware that it is an acronym, derived from: light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation. The fact that it is not written in capital letters, and
is a common noun rather than the name of an organization, also helps to
disguise it. This is the sort of acronym that easily makes its way into a
dictionary. Yuppie, from: young upwardly mobile professional; and radar,
from: Radio Detection and Ranging, are other examples.
Some acronyms are existing
words taken over as more easily used alternatives to full forms, ACORN,
for example, which stands for: A Classification of Residential Neighborhoods, a
sampling system based on different kinds of dwelling; or AIDS, from:
acquired immune deficiency syndrome; or WASP, from: White Anglo-Saxon
Protestant.
Some organizations
deliberately choose terms for products, projects, or equipment so that the
initials will make an existing name. An example of this is ERNIE, from:
Electronic Random Number Indicator Equipment. This is the machine that chooses
the winners of Premium Bonds. A TESSA is a Tax Exempt Savings Bond.
These short and friendly-sounding names suggest something pleasant and
accessible. Another case of image manipulation by acronym is the choice of the
title Fast Reactor Experiment, Dounreay to give FRED.
Campaigning organizations,
in particular, choose names to yield an acronym that is suggestive of their
aims. ASH, Action on Smoking and Health wants people to stop smoking; GASP
is the Group Against Smog Pollution; SCUM, the Society for Cutting Up
Men, wants to attract your attention.
The form in which acronyms
are written varies. The small number that are common nouns rather than names
are often found in small letters, and become indistinguishable from words.
These are nouns such as laser, radar, and aids. The plural
is made, as with most ordinary words, by simply adding s, for example KOs, JCBs, lasers. No apostrophe is needed.[4]
Names of organizations are
most often written as a string of capital letters without full stops, but
practice is variable, and you may see Unesco or UNESCO as well as UNESCO.
You may even see U.N.E.S.C.O..
Note that not all
abbreviations that could be acronyms are so in fact. BA, for example, is
always said [bee eh] and never [bar]. A particularly interesting case is ETA.
When it means 'Estimated Time of Arrival' it is an abbreviation, and is
pronounced [ee tee eh], but when it stands for the Basque separatist group it
is an acronym, and is pronounced [etter], to rhyme with better.
There are two main types
of shortenings in modern lexicology: graphical and lexical. Initialisms are the
bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. [5]
§ 1.2. Graphical abbreviations
Graphical
abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in
written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are
used for the economy of space and effort in writing.
The oldest
group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this
type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling
Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English
equivalents are pronounced in the full form,e.g. for example (Latin exampli
gratia), a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No - number (numero), p.a. -
a year (per annum), d - penny (dinarius), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is
(id est) etc.
Some graphical
abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different
contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced «in the afternoon» (post meridiem) and
«after death» (post mortem).
There are also
graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have
abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents
in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them :[6]
a) days of the
week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue - Tuesday etc
b) names of
months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug - August etc.
c) names of
counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc
d) names of
states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, Alas - Alaska etc.
e) names of
address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.
f) military
ranks, e.g. capt. -captain, col. - colonel, sgt - sergeant etc.
g) scientific
degrees, e.g. B.A. - Bachelor of Arts, D.M. - Doctor of Medicine . (Sometimes
in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B. -
Medicinae Baccalaurus).
h) units of
time, length, weight, e.g. f. / ft -foot/feet, sec. - second, in. -inch, mg. -
milligram etc.
The reading of
some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. «m» can be read as:
male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.» can be read as
long-playing, low pressure.
§
1.3. Types of initials, peculiarities of their pronunciation
Initialisms
are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations.[7] When they appear in
the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to
graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. - joint
venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the
shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g.
BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.
In some cases
the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special
dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very often they are
expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, e.g.
ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as СОЛТ, now a translation variant is used (ОСВ -Договор
об ограничении стратегических вооружений). This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is
preferable, e.g. UFO - НЛО, CП - JV etc.
There are
three types of initialisms in English:[8]
a) initialisms
with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc
b) initialisms
which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.
c) initialisms
which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are
called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School
System).
Some
scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms.
Some
initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different
ways of wordbuilding:
a) affixation,
e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer, ex- POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc.
b) conversion,
e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules),
c)
composition, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc.[9]
d) there are
also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial
abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete
word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. In some cases the first component
is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbreviation with the
alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds (Three dimensions) - стереофильм.
§
1.4. Lexical shortenings of words, their reference to styles
Abbreviation
of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new
lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form
the full form of the word. In such cases as »fantasy» and «fancy», «fence» and
«defence» we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as «laboratory» and
«lab», we have different styles.
Abbreviation
does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of
conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of
speech as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is also a noun.
Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs,
such as to rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly
abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated
nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are
mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy,
dilly, mizzy etc. As a rule pronoun, numerals, interjections, conjunctions are
not abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in one’s teens (aphaeresis
from numerals from 13 to 19).
Lexical
abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is
clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the
word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word.
This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of
words ending in «o», such as disco (discothèque), expo (exposition),
intro (introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there
developed in Modern English a number of words where «o» is added as a kind of a
suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) - небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro (African) -прическа под африканца etc. In other cases the beginning
of the word is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis, e.g. chute
(parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter), thuse (enthuse) etc.
Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan
magazine) maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes
we have a combination of apocope with apheresis,when the beginning and the end
of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van (avanguard) etc.
Sometimes
shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. «c» can be substituted by
«k» before «e» to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke
(coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax(
facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final
consonants in the shortened forms are substituted by letters characteristic of
native English words.
In the modern
English society there is a tendency to social stratification, as a result there
are neologisms in this sphere as well, e.g. belonger - представитель среднего класса, приверженец консервативных взглядов.[10] To this group we can
also refer abbreviations of the type yuppie /young urban professional
people/, such as: muppie, gruppie, rumpie, bluppie etc. People belonging to
the lowest layer of the society are called survivers, a little bit more
prosperous are called sustainers, and those who try to prosper in life and
imitate those, they want to belong to, are called emulaters. Those who have prospered
but are not belongers are called achievers. All these layers of socety are
called VAL /Value and Lifestyles/.
The rich
belong also to jet set that is those who can afford to travel by jet planes all
over the world enjoying their life. Sometimes they are called «jet plane
travellers».
During
Margaret Thatcher’s rule the abbreviation PLU appeared which means «People like
us» by which snobbistic circles of society call themselves. Nowadays /since
1989/ PLU was substituted by «one of us».
There are also
abbreviations of different types, such as resto, teen /teenager/, dinky /dual
income no kids yet/, ARC /AIDS-related condition, infection with AIDS/, HIV /
human immuno-deficiency virus/.
Quite a number
of neologisms appear on the analogy with lexical units existing in the
language, e.g. snowmobile /automobile/, danceaholic /alcoholic/, airtel
/hotel/, cheeseburger /hamburger/, autocade / cavalcade/.
We can find
the following lexical units of common usage:[11]
aggro
/aggression/
Algol /
algorythmic language/
apex /eipeks/
- advanced purchased excursion/ payment for an excursion ninety days before the
time of excursion/
A-day
/announcement Day - day of announcing war/
AID / artificial
insemination by a donor/
AIDS /
acquired immunity deficiency syndrome/
Ala / Alabama/
a.s.a.p. /as
soon as possible/
Bar-B-Q, barb
/barbecue/
to baby-sit /
baby-sitter/
A-level
/advanced level/
BC /birth
certificate/
Burger
/hamberger/ Camford, Oxbridge
CALL
/computer-assisted language learning/
CAT
/computer-assisted training/
cauli /
cauliflower/ COD / cash on delivery/
COBOL / k
ubol/ /common business-oriented language/
Comp /komp, k
mp/ /accompaniment/
DINKY /double income,
no kids yet/
E-Day
/entrance day
Common Market - / expo/exposition/
edbiz/
educational business/
El-hi /
elementary and high
Schools/, ex
lib/ex libris/ /from the library of/
Etc
Euratom fax /facsimile/
G-7 / group of
seven: GB, Germany, Japan, France, Canada, Italy, Spain/. FORTRAN
/formula translation/.
§ 1.5. Blends
Blends are
words formed from a word-group or two synonyms.[12] In blends two ways of
word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we
clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second
component (aphaeresis). As a result we have a compound- shortened word. One of
the first blends in English was the word «smog» from two synonyms: smoke and
fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning
is taken, from the second one the end, «o» is common for both of them.
Blends formed
from two synonyms are: slanguange, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are
formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict
(cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy),
detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on
real facts), informecial (information commercial), Medicare (medical care),
magalog (magazine catalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite
(social elite), slanguist (slang linguist) etc.
§ 1.6. Back formation
It is the way
of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a
new word. It is opposite to suffixation that is why it is called back
formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of misunderstanding
the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Silis explains this mistake by the
influence of the whole system of the language on separate words.[13] E.g. it is typical of
English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er
to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word «beggar» was borrowed
into English the final syllable «ar» was pronounced in the same way as the
English -er and Englishmen formed the verb «to beg» by dropping the end of the
noun. Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from
accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to
enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion)
to reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television) etc.
As we can
notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary
word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns.
§ 1.7. The
peculiarities of appliance of abbreviations in modern English
Newspaper
style has the specific peculiarities, which influence the process of translation.
The purpose of materials of this style is in going certain information from the
certain point of view and reaching the desired influence on the reader.
Newspaper carry information which differs from the one about science and
technique, in particular, they speak about the phenomena, understandable to a
layer of non-specialists, directly or indirectly connected with their lives and
interests. As the main purpose of the style is in giving the certain facts, it
demands the usage of exact notions and phenomena. Hence we have an important
role of terms and names, pointing directly to the object of an idea.
Political
terminology, which is especially characteristic for newspaper style, has the
same main features, peculiar to the terminology of science and technique. At
the same time there are some differences between them, connected with a less
strictness and regulation of systems of terms in social and political sphere,
and also with the dependence of notions of some terms on corresponding
ideological concepts. In materials of newspaper style we can often meet
polysemantic terms, terms-synonyms, abbreviations of terms and names.
The term
“state” in political terminology of the USA can have two meanings “государство” и «штат». Both the state and
Federal authorities are bent on establishing a police state. In the first case
the term “state” stands in one row with an adjective “federal” and means “правительство штатов” in contrast to “правительство всей страны”. In the second case “state” is used in the meaning of “государство”. Terms which are widely known, are
often used in the text in a shortened form:
E.g. Youth is
also virtually excluded from congress, the average age of members of the Senate
being 56 years and of the House 51 years.
Here we can
see the usage of shortened term “House” instead of full term “The House of
Representatives”. One and the same term can have different meaning; it depends
on the ideological trend of the text it is used in. The term “idealism” can be
used in philosophical meaning as the name of the outlook, opposed to
materialism, and have positive or negative sense which depends on the
ideological position of an author. But it is more frequently used in positive
sense, correlating directly with the concept ideals- идеалы with the meaning of serving high
ideals.
E.g. The
foreign Secretary’s most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to prove that
idealism in his guiding star.
Wide usage of
personal names, names of companies, geographical names in the newspaper style
make concrete the report and refer the given information to the certains,
persons, institutions or regions. This fact presupposes the Receptor’s
essential preliminary knowledge, which allows him to find the connection between
the name and the naming object.
So, English
Receptor knows well even without the context that Park Lane is the street, Piccadilly Circus is the place, and Columbia Pictures is the film company. Names of persons
and other names are often used in newspaper materials in the form of
abbreviations. These abbreviations can often be unfamiliar to the wide circle
of readers and their meanings are given in the same note or report.
E.g. AFLCIO =
American Federation of Labor Congress of Industrial Organizations,
E.g. GOP =
Grand Old (Republican) Party,
E.g. DD =
Defense Department.
As far as we
understand, they are divided into several groups.
a) Surnames
and names of famous political figures:
E.g. JFK =
John F. Kennedy , Rocky = Rockefeller.
b) Geographical names:[14]
AFEW - AIDS Foundation
East-West
AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ARV - Antiretroviral
CBF - Central Bureau for Fundraising
CEE - Central and Eastern Europe(an)
DCCA - Development and Co-operation in Central Asia
DfID - UK's Department for International Development
EJAF - Elton John AIDS Foundation
FSU - Former Soviet Union
GG&GD - Municipal Health Service, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
GIDO - Group of International Donor Organizations
HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HR - Harm Reduction
IDU - Injecting Drug User(s)
INTRAC - International NGO Training and Research Centre
KAPB - Knowledge, attitude, practices and behavior surveys
KNCV - Royal Netherlands Tuberculosis Association
MATRA - Maatschappelijke Transitie (Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
MSF-H - Medecins Sans Frontiиres – Holland
MTCT - Mother-to-child transmission of HIV
NGO - Non-governmental organisation
NIS - Newly Independent States (of the former Soviet Union)
NOVIB - Oxfam, The Netherlands
OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
OSI - Open Society Institute
PLWHA - Person(s) living with HIV/AIDS
POBB - Project Ondersteuning Buitenlandse Zaken (Dutch Ministry of
Foreign Affairs)
RF - Russian Federation
SIDA - Swedish International Development Agency
STI - Sexually transmitted infection(s)
TACIS/EU - Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent
States/European Union
TAMPEP - Transnational AIDS/STI Prevention Among Migrant Prostitutes in
Europe Project
TB - Tuberculosis
UN - United Nations
UNAIDS - Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNGASS - United Nations General Assembly Special Session
USAID - United States Agency for International Development
WHO - World Health Organization.
c)
Titles before names:[15]
Mrs., Mr., Ms., Prof.,
Dr., Gen., Rep., Sen., St. (for Saint).
Notice that Miss is not an
abbreviation, so we don't put a period after it. Ms. is not an abbreviation,
either, but we do use a period after it — probably to keep it consistent with
Mr. and Mrs.
The plural of Mr. is
Messrs. (We invited Messrs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Dr. is
Drs. (We consulted Drs. Carter, Lincoln, and Ford.) The plural of Mrs. is Mmes
or Mmes. (with or without the period).
In most formal prose, we
do not use titles, abbreviated or otherwise, with individuals. Ms. Emily
Dickinson is simply Emily Dickinson, and after the first use of her full name, Dickinson will do (unless we need Emily to avoid confusion with other Dickinson’s).
The abbreviations Rev. and
Hon. (for Reverend and Honorable) are not, strictly speaking, titles; they are
adjectives. In informal language or when we're trying to save space or make a
list, we can write Rev. Alan B. Darling and Hon. Francisco Gonzales. In formal
text, we would write "the Reverend Alan B. Darling" and "the
Honorable Francisco Gonzales" (i.e., it's not a good idea to abbreviate
either Reverend or Honorable when these words are preceded by "the").
Incidentally, we cannot say "We invited the reverend to dinner" and
only a cad would invite "the rev."
d)
Titles
after names:[16]
Sr., Jr., Ph.D., M.D.,
B.A., M.A., D.D.S.
These are standard
abbreviations, with periods. The APA Publication Manual recommends not
using periods with degrees; other reference manuals do recommend using periods,
so use your own judgment on this issue. All sources advise against using titles
before and after a name at the same time (i.e., she can be Dr. Juanita
Espinoza or Juanita Espinoza, PhD, but she cannot be Dr. Juanita Espinoza,
PhD). And we do not abbreviate a title that isn't attached to a name: "We
went to see the doctor (not dr.) yesterday."
The Chicago Manual of
Style
recommends not using a comma to separate the Jr./Sr./III from the last
name, but you should follow the preferences of the individual if you know those
preferences. If you list a "junior" with his spouse, the
"Jr." can go after both names, as in "Mr. and Mrs. Arthur C.
Banks Jr." or "Mr. Arthur C. Banks Jr. and Gloria Banks — but not
Arthur C. and Gloria Banks Jr. You should avoid using a "Jr." or
"Sr." when you have only the last name — Mr. Banks Jr.
e) Names of familiar institutions
— UConn, MIT, UCLA, CIA, FBI, NATO; countries - U.S.A., U.K.; corporations — IBM, CBS, NPR, CNN, ITT; famous people — LBJ, FDR, JFK, MLK;
very familiar objects — TV, VCR, CD-ROM.
Notice that U.S.A. can also be written USA, but U.S. is better with the periods. Also, we can use U.S. as a modifier (the U.S. policy on immigration) but not as a noun (He left the U.S.
U.S.A.).
f) Terms
of mathematical units: 15 in., 15 ft, 15 kg, 15 m, 15 lb
Generally, you would use
these abbreviations only in technical writing. There is a space between the
number and the abbreviation. Notice that we do not put an s after such
abbreviations even when the plural is indicated. Also, we do not use a period
with such abbreviations except for in. when it might be confused with
the preposition in.
When the term of
measurement is used as a modifier, we put a hyphen between the number and the
term of measurement: a 15-ft board, a 6-lb line, etc.
g) Long,
common phrases, [17]
such as IQ (Intelligence Quotient), rpm (revolutions
per minute), mph (miles per hour), and mpg (miles per gallon).
Such abbreviations are acceptable even in formal academic text and may be used
without periods.
h) Words
used with numbers: He left at 2:00 a.m.
She was born in 1520 B.C.
Either lower or upper case
letters can be used with A.M., a.m., P.M., p.m. The abbreviation B.C. (before
Christ) is used after the date; A.D. (anno domini, "in the
year of the Lord") appears before the date. The abbreviations B.C.
and A.D. are sometimes replaced with B.C.E. (before the Common Era) and C.E. (Common
Era), both used after the date (although one must add that those abbreviations
are neither widely used nor commonly understood). Sometimes you will see 790 BC
and AD 78 written without periods and written in SMALL CAPS. Note that many
style books are now recommending SMALL CAPS for all appearances of acronyms,
such as NAACP or NCAA. The effect of this practice is to allow the acronym to
blend more smoothly with the rest of the text.
It is considered bad form
to use these abbreviations without a specific number attached to them:
"We'll do this in the a.m." or "We'll do this tomorrow
a.m."
i)
Common Latin terms:
[18]
etc. (et cetera — and so forth), i.e. (id
est — that is), e.g. (exempli gratia — for example), et al. (et
alii — and others).
The abbreviation i.e. (i.e., that is) is
often confused with other abbreviations (e.g., e.g.). The i.e. generally is
used to introduce matter that is explanatory as opposed to being the name of an
example or list of examples. If you can say for example as a substitute
for the abbreviation, you want to use e.g., not i.e. Do not italicize or
underline these abbreviations. Most sources recommend avoiding the use of Latin
abbreviations except within parenthetical notes and some sources say not to use
Latin abbreviations at all (use the English terms instead) except within
citations or reference lists. Good advice.
The Chicago Manual of Style
recommends using a comma after i.e. or e.g. in order to set off those
abbreviations as introductory modifiers. Other resources say not to bother with
the comma, but the comma makes good sense.
j) Names
of states and territories[19]
in references and addresses, but not in normal
text. Abbreviations accepted by the U.S. Postal Service
(including abbreviations for words like Boulevard and Alley) are
listed online. Do not use state abbreviations simply to save time or space
except in an address on an envelope or list. We do not use periods with state
abbreviations: CT, NY, and NJ. We use D.C. after the name of the city within
the District of Columbia: Washington, D.C.; the APA Manual does not use
periods with DC. The U.S. postal service, incidentally, does not insert a comma
between the city and the abbreviated state name: Hartford CT, Portland OR — at least not in the addresses on envelopes.
Abbreviate
"Saint" in U.S. place names, as in St. Louis and St. Petersburg, Florida, and the St. Lawrence River. For the same word in other countries, you might have
to consult a good dictionary (one that contains place names): St./Saint
Martin's in the Fields, Saint Moritz, Saint Lucia, Mont-Saint-Michel, Saint Petersburg (Russia). When the word Saint is used to refer to a holy person, spell
out the word — Saint Theresa, Saint Francis of Assisi. If an institution is
named after a saint, spell out the word Saint unless you have some
reason to save space — Saint Francis Hospital, Saint Joseph College, Saint Joseph's University. It is wise, as always, to consult the actual institution.
Colleges, universities, and hospitals named after Saint Mary are about evenly
divided between St. and Saint, but in formal situations, Saint
seems to be favored more frequently.
We shouldn’t
abbreviate the following:[20]
(In formal academic prose it is considered bad form
to abbreviate words simply to save space, time, or energy.)
-
Words such as through (thru), night (nite).
-
Days of the week or months of the year (in the normal flow of
text).
-
Words at the beginning of a sentence.
-
People's names such as Chas. (for Charles) or Jas. (for James),
unless those abbreviations have come to be accepted as nicknames for those
particular individuals.
-
States' names such as Mass. (for Massachusetts) or Conn. (for Connecticut). When appropriate (as in the addresses for envelopes), use the U.S. postal service's approved two-letter abbreviations: MA, CT
(without periods).
-
Courses such as econ (for economics) or poli sci (for political
science).
k) Spacing and Periods[21]
Abbreviations of units of
measure are written without periods (with the exception of "in" when
it could be confused with the preposition). We use periods for most lower-case
abbreviations such as e.g. and i.e. and c.o.d. For very common abbreviations,
leave out the periods, as in rpm and mph. When an abbreviation with a period
ends a sentence, that period will suffice to end the sentence: He lives in Washington, D.C. Suffixes for people's names require periods: Joe Smith Jr. lives in Erie. In formal text it is not a good idea to abbreviate military titles — Lieutenant
Colonel Chester Piascyk — but in informal text Lt. Col. Chester Piascyk would
be acceptable. (Note the space after "Lt.") Academic degrees can be
written with periods or not, but don't insert spaces — Ph.D. or PhD, M.B.A. or
MBA — within the degree.
People's
initials are usually followed by a period and a space — W. E. B.
DuBois — but you need to be careful that a line-break doesn't come in the
middle of someone's initials. (You can impose what is called a "forced
space" or "non-breaking space" by holding down the option key
while you hit the space bar.) You will find exceptions to this rule in the way
that some companies write their name: JCPenney (no spaces or periods), L.L.
Bean (no space in the initials), etc. In normal text, writers can safely ignore
corporate aberrations in spacing and capitalization. (Some editors write Harry
S Truman without a period after the "S," because the initial didn't
really stand for anything, but the Truman Presidential Museum and Library contends that that
practice is silly. Still, you will often find Truman's name written sans period
in highly regarded places.) When a person's initials stand alone — either as a
nickname, "Come here, JT!" — or as a common shortcut — JFK (for John
Fitzgerald Kennedy) or LBJ (for Lyndon Baines Johnson) — type them without
spaces or periods. Professional designations such as CPA (Certified Public
Accountant) or CLU (Certified Life Underwriter) are separated from the last
name with a comma and are written without spaces or periods, as in Bertha
Bigknot, CPA, unless the designation is accompanied by an academic degree, as
in Foxy Reynard, Ph.D., and C.L.U.
Except in the business of
formally citing material you've used in research, it's a good idea not to use
et al. when you mean "and others." And don't use etc. as a lazy
person's way of getting out of work. Spell out the word versus unless
you're reporting game scores, when you would use vs.; when you're citing legal
documents, use the abbreviation v.
Using articles with abbreviations and acronyms:[22]
One of the most often asked questions
about grammar has to do with the choice of articles
- a, an, the - to precede an abbreviation or acronym.
Do we say an FBI agent or a FBI agent? Although "F" is
obviously a consonant and we would precede any word that begins with
"F" with "a," we precede FBI with "an" because
the first sound we make when we say FBI is not an "f-sound," it is an
"eff-sound." Thus we say we're going to a PTO meeting where an
NCO will address us. We say we saw a UFO because, although the
abbreviation begins with a 'U," we pronounce the "U" as if it
were spelled "yoo." Whether we say an URL or a URL, it depends
on whether we pronounce it as "earl" or as "u*r*l."
Resume to the first
Chapter:
Some organizations
deliberately choose terms for products, projects, or equipment so that the
initials will make an existing name. Campaigning organizations, in particular,
choose names to yield an acronym that is suggestive of their aims. The form in
which acronyms are written varies.
One problem with
abbreviations that are pronounceable as words is that when you meet a new one
in print, you may not know which way to say it. This is more of a problem now
that all abbreviations, not just acronyms, tend to be written without full
stops. A full stop after each letter usually means that the abbreviation is
pronounced as a string of letters.
Graphical abbreviations
are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech
while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the
economy of space and effort in writing.
There are also
graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have
abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents
in the full form. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of
Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. The second
one helps to follow the stylistic peculiarities and functions of the
abbreviations in modern English.
Initialisms
are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they
appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer
to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. - joint
venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the
shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g.
BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.
In some cases
the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special
dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. There are three types
of initialisms in English: initialisms with alphabetical reading; initialisms
which are read as if they are words; initialisms which coincide with English
words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms.
Abbreviation
does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of
conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of
speech as the primary word. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also
meet abbreviation of verbs. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by
means of conversion from abbreviated nouns. Adjectives can be abbreviated but
they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation. As a
rule, pronouns, numerals, interjections conjunctions are not abbreviated.
Lexical
abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is
clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the
word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word.
This type of abbreviation is called apocope.
|
Chapter II. The stylistic functions of the
abbreviations in modern English. Practical part
|
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Here is a guide to the most important abbreviations and on
how to use them. We should begin with examples of usage in official
speech.
§ 2.1. Common abbreviations[23]
Here
are a few examples of abbreviations that are common in the English language.
FO Foreign
Office
HO Home Office
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
RAF Royal Air Force
i.e. id est (that is)
m.p.h. miles per hour
I.Q. Intelligence Quota
B&B Bed and Breakfast
DIY Do it Yourself
§
2.2. Abbreviations as scientific words[24]
CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force
Station
CCSDS Consultative
Committee for Space Data Systems
C&DH command
and data handling
CDU command
detector unit
DB/K decibel
per Kelvin
dBm decibel
referred to 1 milliwatt
deg degree
DSN Deep
Space Network
DSS Deep
Space Station
EIRP effective
isotropic radiated power
ELS eastern
launch site
EMC electromagnetic
compatibility
EMI electromagnetic
interference
ENG engineering-only
telemetry data stream
ER electron
reflect meter
ERR eastern
range regulation
ESMC Eastern
Space and Missile Center
ET ephemeris
time
FED-STD federal
standard
FOV field
of view
GFP government-furnished
property
GSE ground
support equipment
G/T gain/temperature
Hz hertz
IAU International
Astronomical Unit
ICD interface
control document
ID identification
IFOV instrument
field of view
JPL Jet
Propulsion Laboratory
KABLE Ka-band
link experiment
Kb/S kilobits
per second
keV thousand
electron volts
kHz kilohertz
KSC Kennedy Space Center
ks/s kilo
symbols per second
L launch
m meter
MAG magnetometer
MBR Mars
balloon relay
MEF maximum
expected flight
MDA McDonnell
Douglas Aerospace
MIL-STD military
standard
MGS Mars
Global Surveyor
MOC Mars
orbiter camera
MOI Mars
orbit insertion
MOLA Mars
orbiter laser altimeter
MOS mission
operations system
MR Mars
relay
mrad mill
radian
mW mill
watt
N/A not
applicable
NASA National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NHB NASA
Handbook
nT nanotesla
OTM orbit
trim maneuver
PDS payload
data subsystem
POR power-on
reset
RF radio
frequency
RFP request
for proposal
RS radio
science
RSS root
sum square
RTC real-time
commands
SBRC Santa Barbara Research Center
SDS spacecraft
data storage
S/C spacecraft
S&E-1 science
and engineering data stream 1
S&E-2 science
and engineering data stream 2
SEE single-event
effects
SEL single-event
latchups
SEU single-event
upset
SFOC Space Flight Operations Center
SPE static
phase error
sr steradian
SRFOV stray
radiation field of view
SSC stored
sequence commands
TCM trajectory
correction maneuver
TES thermal
emission spectrometer
USO ultrastable
oscillator
VDIR view
direction
§ 2.3. Abbreviations of American origin
Some abbreviations of American origin penetrate
into business sphere of activities without transformation.[25] For instance,
AI —
первый класс, первоклассный
АС (account current) - текущий банковский счет (в
Англии), открытый счет (в США)
а/с или АСС (account) — счет
Adv. (advance) — кредит
AFL (American Federation of Labor) — Американская федерация труда (АФТ)
agt (agreement) — соглашение,
договор
АМА (American Management Association) — Американская ассоциация
по совершенствованию методов управления
АМЕХ (American Stock Exchange) — Американская фондовая биржа
a/s (after sight) — после предъявления
asap (as soon as possible) — как можно быстрее, срочно
AW (airway) — авиалиния
BIS (Bank for International
Settlements) - Банк международных расчетов
bal (balance) — баланс, сальдо
b.b. 1. (bank book) — банковская книжка, 2. (bear bonds) — предъявительские облигации, З. (bill book) — вексельная книга
Bu (bureau) — бюро, отдел, управление bus (business) —
бизнес, дело, предпринимательство
С (costs consumption) — потребительские расходы
с.а. или С/А (current account) — текущий счет
corp(n) (corporation) — корпорация
n/e (not exceeding) — не превышающий, не более, максимум
NE (net export) — чистый экспорт
PA (personal assistant) — личный секретарь-референт
Р.В (passbook) — банковская расчетная книжка ets.
§ 2.4. Innovations
in American English
It’s
necessary to follow any innovations in American English for avoiding false
interpretation.[26]
For instance, splash headline (instead of
British- big headline);
яркое рекламное объявление (на суперобложке) blurb (instead of British - bright ad); поместить статью на незаметном месте to bury a story (instead of British - to place an item on the back);
окончательный срок (представления материалов) deadline (instead of British - final date);
пресса (представители печати) the Fourth estate (possibly — the representatives of the press).
AMERICAN ENGLISH
ABBREVIATIONS
|
A.C. alternating current
A.D. (Latin) anno Domini “in
the year of the Lord”
a.k.a. also known as
(referring to a second, well-known name)
a.m. (Latin) ante meridian
(time period; midnight to noon)
apt. apartment
ASAP as soon as possible
AV audio-visual
Ave. Avenue
AWOL absent without leave
(military)
B.A. Bachelor of Arts
(academic degree)
BBQ,
Bar-BQ barbeque
Bldg. building
BMOC “Big Man on Campus”
(unofficial college title)
Boul. Boulevard
Bros. brothers
B.S. Bachelor of Science
(academic degree)
B.T.U. British Thermal Unit
bx. box
BYOB bring your own
bottle/booze (type of informal party)
C. Centigrade scale
c., ca. circa (about); c. also
for cup (cooking measurement)
C.E.O. chief executive officer
(business)
C.O.D. cash on delivery
C.P.A. Certified Public
Accountant
cop., c. copyright
Corp. corporation
C & W country and western
music
D.C. District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.); direct current
D-Day the Allies’ Normandy Invasion of Europe, June 6, 1944
D.D.S. Doctor of Dental
Surgery (dentist)
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOA dead on arrival
dz. dozen (l2)
ed. edition, editor
e.g. (Latin) exempli gratia
“for example”
EKG electrocardiogram
encl. enclosed
esp. especially
ESP extrasensory perception
et. al. (Latin) et ali “and
others”
ESA estimated time of
arrival
etc. (Latin) et cetera “and
so forth”
F. Fahrenheit scale
fl. oz. fluid ounce
FYI for your information
G.O.P. Grand Old Party (Republican
Party)
GNP gross national product
gyn gynecology
hp horsepower
H.Q.,
hdqts. headquarters
hrs. hours
H.R.H. Her Royal Highness (Britain)
ht. height
I.D. identification (papers,
card)
i.e. (Latin) id est “that
is”
Inc. incorporated
incl. included
Intl. international
I.Q. intelligence quotient
Is. island
ISBN International Standard
Book Number
IRS Internal Revenue
Service (U.S. taxes)
ital. italic (script)
IV intravenous
J.D. Juries Doctor (Doctor
of Law), lawyer
J.P. Justice of the Peace
Jr. junior (named after his
father)
JV junior varsity (sports)
K.P. “kitchen police”
(military kitchen duty)
K.O. knockout (boxing)
lb. (Latin) libra “pound”
lg., lge large (size)
M.A. Master of Arts
(academic degree)
M.B.A. Master of Business
Administration (academic degree)
|
M.D. Medicineane Doctor
(Doctor of Medicine)
med. medium (size)
M.F.A. Master of Fine Arts
(academic degree)
mdse. merchandise
Mgr. manager
MHZ megahertz
M.I.A. missing in action
(military)
misc. miscellaneous
mph. miles per hour
M.S. Masters of Science
(academic degree)
ms(s) manuscript
msg. message
MSG monosodium glutamate
(food seasoning)
Madison Square Garden (stadium in New York City)
M.S.W. Masters of Social Work
(academic degree)
Mt (s). mountain(s)
Natl. national
n.b. (Latin) nota bene “take note”
no. number
nt. wt. net weight
O.E.D. Oxford English
Dictionary
o.j. orange juice
oz. ounce
PA public address (system)
pd. paid
P.E. physical education
pg. page
p.m. (Latin) post meridiem
(time period; noon to midnight)
P.O.
(box) post office (box)
P.O.E. port of entry
P.O.W. prisoner of war
(military)
PDQ “pretty darn quick” –
fast
p.s. (Latin) post scriptum
“post script” (note at end of letter)
“p’s
and q’s” manners, etiquette
pt. pint
“3 R’s” “reading, (w)riting,
and (a)rithmetic”: basic education
R & B rhythm and blues music
R & D research and
development
Rev. Reverend (religious)
RFD rural free delivery
(postal)
R.I.P. “rest in peace”
(gravestone marker)
REM rapid eye movement
R.N. registered nurse
rpm (s) revolution per minute
RR railroad
RSVP (French) respondez s’il
vous plait “please respond”
S.A.S.E. self-addressed stamped
envelope
sm. small (size)
Sr. senior (father whose
son is given the same name; see Jr.)
SRO standing room only
(public event)
St. saint (St. Louis, MO); street
SWAK sealed with a kiss (on
envelope of romantic letter)
TB tuberculosis
Tbsp. tablespoon
tsp. teaspoon (cooking
measurements)
TGIF “thank God (goodness)
it’s Friday” (office worker’s slogan)
TLC tender loving care
UFO unidentified flying
object
UHF ultra high frequency
VCR video cassette
recorder/player
V-E Day Allies declared
“Victory in Europe”, May 8, 1945
VIP “Very Important Person”
V-J Day Allies declared
“Victory in Japan”, august 15, 1945
vs. versus (against)
x signature of an
illiterate person; an unknown or unnamed quantity, factor, person or thing;
by, in a measurement (2" x 4")
x’d to delete or cancel
with a series of x’s
X-mas Christmas
zzzzz,
z’s sound of someone
sleeping or snoring
|
§ 2.5. Abbreviations
as lexical units of business English
Abbreviations are very
essential for business lexical units. We have composed semi-official letter. Examining
of letter will demonstrate the functions of shortenings in business English.
MATTHEWS & WILSON
Ladies' Clothing
421 Michigan Avenue
Chicago, III.60602
Messrs GRANT &
CLARKSON
148 Mortimer Street
London WIC 37D
England
October 21, 1993
Gentlemen:
We saw your women’s dresses and
suits at the London Fashion Show held in New York on October 17. The
lines you showed for teenagers, the “Swinger" dresses and
trouser suits would be most suitable for our market.
Would you kindly send us
your quotation for spring and summer clothing that you could supply to
us by the end of January next? We would require 2,000 dresses and suits in each
of the sizes 10-14, and 500 in sizes 8 and 16. Please
quote c.i.f. Chicago prices. Payment is normally made by letter of credit.
Thank you for an early
reply.
Very truly yours,
P.Wilson.Jr
Buyer.
This is undoubtedly an
import inquiry letter. In the first part of a letter there
is a kind of introduction as a prospective
customer approaches supplier for the first time ,and it is
from this part that we found out
that the correspondents are engaged in textile industry.
The second
part expresses request for
detailed information about the goods in question, their prices and terms of
possible transaction.
In this
example we come across the abbreviation
concerning the terms of delivery that is commonly accepted in the
business world. This kind of abbreviations means:
c.i.f. - cost, insurance,
freight.
If consignment is to be delivered according
to c.i.f., then the supplier insures the goods and pays for the
whole delivery.
f.o.b. - free on board.
If consignment
is to be delivered according to f.o.b., then
the supplier pays for transportation to port, steamer or air
shipment and dispatch; and the customer pays for onward
transportation and insurance.
f.o.r. - free on rail.
It is
the same as f.o.b., but
for railway transportation.
c & f - cost and freight.
If consignment is to be delivered according
to c & f, then the supplier pays for the whole delivery and
the customer - for insurance.
It is worth mentioning
here that the whole letter is written in
a highly polite way, nevertheless it is quite
precise and sticks to the point.
§ 2.6. The most common acronyms of the
areas of networks
This passage lists some of
the most common acronyms that you will find in the areas of networks, distributed
object development.[27]The
standard presented here includes rules for solving British and European culture
and languages related information technology problems in the process of
software and hardware products development, especially considering the needs of
information exchange between different systems.
|
3GL
|
third
generation language
|
|
4GL
|
fourth
generation language
|
|
ACID
|
atomicity,
consistency, isolation, durability
|
|
ACL
|
access
control list
|
|
ADT
|
abstract
datatype
|
|
AFC
|
application
foundation classes [Microsoft]
|
|
ANSI
|
American
National Standards Institute
|
|
API
|
application
program interface
|
|
AQ
|
advanced
queuing [Oracle8]
|
|
ASCII
|
American
standard code for information interchange
|
|
AWT
|
abstract
windowing toolkit [Java]
|
|
BDK
|
beans
developer kit [Java]
|
|
BLOB
|
binary large
object
|
|
BOA
|
basic object
adapter [CORBA]
|
|
BSD
|
Berkeley
system distribution [UNIX]
|
|
C/S
|
client/server
|
|
CGI
|
common
gateway interface
|
|
CICS
|
customer
information control system [IBM]
|
|
CLI
|
call level
interface [SAG]
|
|
CLOB
|
character
large object
|
|
COM
|
common object
model [Microsoft]
|
|
CORBA
|
common
object request broker architecture [OMG]
|
|
DB
|
database
|
|
DBA
|
database
administrator, database administration
|
|
DBMS
|
database
management system
|
|
DCE
|
distributed
computing environment [OSF]
|
|
DCOM
|
distributed
common object model [Microsoft]
|
|
DDCF
|
distributed
document component facility
|
|
DDE
|
dynamic data
exchange [Microsoft]
|
|
DDL
|
data
definition language [SQL]
|
|
DLL
|
dynamic link
library [Microsoft]
|
|
DLM
|
distributed
lock manager [Oracle8]
|
|
DML
|
data
manipulation language [SQL]
|
|
DOS
|
disk
operating system
|
|
DSOM
|
distributed
system object model [IBM]
|
|
DSS
|
decision
support system
|
|
DTP
|
distributed
transaction processing
|
|
EBCDIC
|
extended
binary-coded decimal interchange code [IBM]
|
|
EJB
|
Enterprise
JavaBean
|
|
ERP
|
enterprise
resource planning
|
|
ESIOP
|
environment-specific
inter-orb protocol
|
|
FTP
|
file transfer
protocol
|
|
GB
|
gigabyte
|
|
GIF
|
graphics
interchange format
|
|
GIOP
|
general
inter-orb protocol
|
|
GUI
|
graphical
user interface
|
|
GUID
|
globally-unique
identifier
|
|
HTML
|
hypertext
markup language
|
|
HTTP
|
hypertext
transfer protocol
|
|
IDE
|
integrated
development environment, interactive development environment
|
|
IDL
|
interface
definition language
|
|
IEEE
|
Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
|
|
IIOP
|
internet
inter-ORB protocol
|
|
IP
|
internet
protocol
|
|
IPC
|
interprocess
communication
|
|
IS
|
information
services
|
|
ISAM
|
indexed
sequential access method
|
|
ISO
|
international
standards organization (translation)
|
|
ISP
|
internet
service provider
|
|
ISQL
|
interactive
SQL [Interbase]
|
|
ISV
|
independent
software vendor
|
|
IT
|
information
technology
|
|
JAR
|
Java
archive (on analogy with tar, q.v.)
|
|
JCK
|
Java
compatibility kit [Sun]
|
|
JDBC
|
"Java
database connectivity"
|
|
JDK
|
Java
developer kit
|
|
JFC
|
Java
foundation classes
|
|
JIT
|
just in time
|
|
JNDI
|
Java
naming and directory interface
|
|
JNI
|
Java native
interface
|
|
JOB
|
Java
Objects for Business [Sun]
|
|
JPEG
|
joint
photographic experts group
|
|
JSP
|
Java server
pages [Sun]
|
|
JTA
|
Java
transaction API
|
|
JTS
|
Java
transaction service
|
|
KB
|
kilobyte
|
|
LAN
|
local area
network
|
|
LDAP
|
lightweight
directory access protocol
|
|
LDIF
|
LDPA data
interchange format
|
|
LOB
|
large object
|
|
MB
|
megabyte
|
|
MIS
|
management
information services
|
|
MOM
|
message-oriented
middleware
|
|
MPEG
|
motion
picture experts group
|
|
NCLOB
|
national
character large object
|
|
NIC
|
network
information center [internet]
|
|
NNTP
|
net news
transfer protocol
|
|
NSP
|
network
service provider
|
|
NT
|
New
Technology [Microsoft]
|
|
OCI
|
Oracle call
interface
|
|
OCX
|
OLE common
control [Microsoft]
|
|
ODBC
|
open database
connectivity [Microsoft]
|
|
ODBMS
|
object
database management system
|
|
ODL
|
object
definition language [Microsoft]
|
|
ODMG
|
Object
Database Management Group
|
|
OEM
|
original
equipment manufacturer
|
|
OID
|
object
identifier
|
|
OLE
|
object
linking and embedding
|
|
OLTP
|
on line
transaction processing
|
|
OMA
|
object
management architecture [OMG]
|
|
OMG
|
Object
Management Group
|
|
OO
|
object-oriented,
object orientation
|
|
OODBMS
|
object-oriented
database management system
|
|
OQL
|
object query
language
|
|
ORB
|
object
request broker
|
|
ORDBMS
|
object
relational database management system
|
|
OS
|
operating
system
|
|
OSF
|
Open System
Foundation
|
|
OSI
|
open systems
interconnect
|
|
OSQL
|
object SQL
|
|
OTM
|
object
transaction monitor
|
|
OTS
|
object
transaction service
|
|
OWS
|
Oracle Web
Server
|
|
PB
|
petabyte
|
|
PDF
|
portable
document format [Adobe]
|
|
PGP
|
pretty good
privacy
|
|
PL/SQL
|
procedural
language/SQL [Oracle]
|
|
POA
|
portable
object adapter [CORBA]
|
|
RAM
|
random access
memory
|
|
RAS
|
remote
access service [Microsoft NT]
|
|
RCS
|
revision
control system
|
|
RDBMS
|
relational
database management system
|
|
RFC
|
request for
comments
|
|
RFP
|
request for
proposal
|
|
RMI
|
remote method
invocation [Sun]
|
|
ROM
|
read only
memory
|
|
RPC
|
remote
procedure call
|
|
RTF
|
rich text
file
|
|
SAG
|
SQL Access
Group
|
|
SCSI
|
small
computer system interface
|
|
SDK
|
software
developer kit
|
|
SET
|
secure
electronic transaction
|
|
SGML
|
standard generalized
markup language
|
|
SID
|
system
identifier [Oracle]
|
|
SLAPD
|
standalone
LDAP daemon
|
|
SMP
|
symmetric
multiprocessing
|
|
SMTP
|
simple mail
transfer protocol
|
|
SPI
|
service
provider interface
|
|
SQL
|
structured
query language
|
|
SQLJ
|
SQL for Java
|
|
SRAM
|
static
(or synchronous) random access memory
|
|
SSL
|
secure socket
layer
|
|
TB
|
terabyte
|
|
TCPS
|
TCP for SSL
|
|
TCP/IP
|
transmission
control protocol/internet protocol
|
|
TP
|
transaction
processing
|
|
TPC
|
Transaction
Processing Council
|
|
TPCW
|
TPC Web
benchmark
|
|
TPF
|
transaction
processing facility
|
|
TPM
|
transaction
processing monitor
|
|
UCS
|
universal
character set [ISO 10646]
|
|
UDP
|
user Titograd
protocol
|
|
UI
|
user
interface
|
|
UML
|
unified
modeling language [Rational]
|
|
URL
|
universal
resource locator
|
|
VAR
|
value-added
reseller
|
|
VRML
|
virtual
reality modeling language
|
|
WAN
|
wide area
network
|
|
WIPS
|
web
interactions per second [TPCW]
|
|
WWW
|
world wide
web
|
|
XA
|
extended
architecture [X/Open]
|
|
XML
|
extended
markup language
|
|
jdb
|
Java debugger
[Sun]
|
|
tar
|
tape archive,
tape archiver [UNIX]
|
|
tps
|
transactions
per second
|
|
Resume to the second chapter:
The
abundance of abbreviations is the characteristic feature of newspaper style
of modern English language. Besides, nowadays the
computer systems hardware and especially the software are more and more often
adjusted to the cultural and language peculiarities of a specific country and
nation. In different countries, different alphabets and rules for coding
currency units, date, time, numbers, etc. are in use. Sorting algorithms for
verbal texts present a special kind of problem. English and culture have
developed in close contacts with several languages and cultures, so we do not
possess unique rules and algorithms to represent the above-mentioned data.
Agreements developed in practical life need to be presented in the form of a
standard. In most cases, it is possible to lean on international standards,
yet they have to be somewhat extended and specified according to the
peculiarities of the European languages and culture.
|
Conclusion
The present
bachelor’s paper is devoted to the investigation of the significance of
abbreviation-process impact on the modern English language in
conditions of the world integration and globalization in the course of human
activities and the conclusion of the given paper is aimed at displaying the
results of this study.
The
given Graduation Paper gives us a notion for the Abbreviations, their
classification and stylistic functions in modern linguistics. We emphasized on the
definitions given by different lexicologists, on the origin, structure and
style usage of them. If a non-native English speaker
comes across the abbreviation a.k.a. in a text, then he/she will find it hard
to guess that it means "also known as" without referring to a
dictionary.
The
theoretical part (The first chapter) gives us a notion of the major
characteristics of the abbreviations and of the main ways of their formation in
modern English.
Most
people use abbreviations when taking notes. The words that we abbreviate are
either words that we use frequently when writing or long words. There are
infinite amounts of abbreviations in the English language and people are now
using them more and more in daily speech (English speakers say the UK instead of United Kingdom!). Some abbreviations are relatively easy to guess, however, others are
not so obvious. The abbreviation d.o.b. (date of birth) which is used on many
administrative forms might be obvious to an English native speaker but a
non-native English speaker will find it impossible to guess.
Some
abbreviations are easy to guess since they are also used in other European
languages (e.g. example given: CD, compact disc. V.I.P Very
Important Person). Others are more particular to the UK and refer to British institutions or companies (e.g. HRH, Her Royal Highness the
Queen's title or BT for British Telecom).
Abbreviating
work or academic titles is common practice in the UK. For example, you can
write Dr. for doctor, MA instead of Masters of -Arts or MP for Member of
Parliament. Diplomas in formal documents such as CVs appear in the form of an
abbreviation (BSc for Bachelor of Science, PhD for doctor of Philosophy).
However, as a rule, if you use an abbreviation for the first time, you should
put its meaning into brackets unless you are dealing with common abbreviations
such as e.g. for example, PTO please turn over, or re: reply.
It
is hard to make a list of economic terms because there are so many of them. The
best thing to do is to learn them progressively. The abbreviation Ltd. stands
for a company with limited liability (Inc. meaning incorporated is the US equivalent) and GDP stands for Gross Domestic Product.
The given
chapter of the Graduation Paper is also devoted to delivering of
classification of the abbreviations and the main differences between them.
During
investigation we have found a row of difficulties. When initialisms appear in
the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to
graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. - joint
venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the
shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g.
BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.
Initialisms
are denoted in different ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they
are pronounced in the language of their origin. This type of initialisms
borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO - НЛО, CП - JV etc.
Some
initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different
ways of word building: affixation, conversion, composition and the way of
compound-shortening of words where the first component is an initial
abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete
word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc.
In some cases
the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial
abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds (Three
dimensions) - стереофильм.
There is a
difference between acronyms and abbreviations. An acronym is usually formed by
taking the first initials of a phrase or compounded-word and using those
initials to form a word that stands for something. Thus NATO, which we
pronounce NATOH, is an acronym for North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and
LASER (which we pronounce "lazer"), is an acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. FBI, then, is not really an
acronym for the Federal Bureau of Investigation; it is an abbreviation. AIDS is
an acronym; HIV is an abbreviation. URL is an abbreviation for Uniform Resource
Locator (World Wide Web address), but many people pronounce it as
"Earl," making it a true acronym, and others insist on pronouncing it
as three separate letters, "U * R * L," thus making it an
abbreviation. The jury is still out. (I vote for Uncle Earl.)
It appears that there are
no hard and fast rules for using periods in either acronyms or abbreviations.
More and more, newspapers and journals seem to drop the periods: NAACP, NCAA,
etc. Consistency, obviously, is important.
Mostly nouns
undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to
tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by
means of conversion from abbreviated nouns. Adjectives can be abbreviated but
they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g.
comfy. As a rule, pronouns, numerals, interjections conjunctions are not
abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in one’s teens (aphaeresis
from numerals from 13 to 19).
Mostly the end
of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the
root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation
is called apocope.
We
should to beware! FO can mean Field Officer, Flying Officer or Foreign Office.
Abbreviations
make our life easier. However, when using them, don't overdo it. Otherwise,
people will say to you: "You're going OTT (over the top)!"
We
can single out the general inferences and enumerate them:
1. We can conclude that there
are two main types of shortenings in modern lexicology: graphical and lexical.
Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations.
2. Abbreviations
are one of the most annoying things about language.
3. Abbreviating
work or academic titles is common practice in the UK.
4. People in
business use many abbreviations mostly because economic terms tend to be too
long.
5. Initialisms are the
bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations.
6. Graphical abbreviations
are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech
while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the
economy of space and effort in writing.
|
7.
There
are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we
have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English
equivalents in the full form. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in
English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not
typical.
8.
There
are three types of initialisms in English: initialisms with alphabetical
reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc.; initialisms which are read as if they
are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.; initialisms which coincide with
English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g.
CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System).
9.
Some
scientists unite the last groups into one which they call acronyms. In some
cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using
special dictionaries.
10. Abbreviation does not
change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or
affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the
primary word.
11. Lexical abbreviations
are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped.
12. Some
abbreviations have different meanings depending on the context.
The
practical part (The second chapter) helps to follow the stylistic
peculiarities and functions of the abbreviations in modern English.
Nowadays the
computer systems hardware and especially the software are more and more often
adjusted to the cultural and language peculiarities of a specific country and
nation. In different countries, different alphabets and rules for coding
currency units, date, time, numbers, etc. are in use. Sorting algorithms for
verbal texts present a special kind of problem. English and culture have
developed in close contacts with several languages and cultures, so we do not
possess unique rules and algorithms to represent the above-mentioned data.
Agreements developed in practical life need to be presented in the form of a
standard. In most cases, it is possible to lean on international standards,
yet they have to be somewhat extended and specified according to the
peculiarities of the European languages and culture.
It is determined that we shouldn’t abbreviate the following:
(In formal academic prose it is considered bad
form to abbreviate words simply to save space, time, or energy.)
-
Words such as through (thru), night (nite).
-
Days of the week or months of the year (in the normal flow of
text).
-
Words at the beginning of a sentence.
-
People's names such as Chas. (for Charles) or Jas. (for James),
unless those abbreviations have come to be accepted as nicknames for those
particular individuals.
-
States' names such as Mass. (for Massachusetts) or Conn. (for Connecticut). When appropriate (as in the addresses for envelopes), use the U.S. postal service's approved two-letter abbreviations: MA, CT
(without periods).
-
Courses such as econ (for economics) or poli sci (for political
science).
Having
researched the texts of official style, we can affirm that the abundance of
abbreviations is the characteristic feature of official speech of modern
English language. We can conclude that in the
process of communication words and word-groups should be shortened so as:
1.
The
causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By
extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant.
2.
In
Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are
formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to
give more and more information in the shortest possible time.
3.
The
rushing to clearness discovers expression in application of legible grammar
constructions and lexical units, and also in the wide use of a nomenclature.
4.
As a
rule, the placed terms will be utilized conventional, though meet and
terminoids (terms, having circulation in a narrow orb), which considerably
hamper translation.
5.
The
rushing to a multiplicity expresses in wide application of infinitive,
gerundial and subordinate clauses, abbreviations (cuttings) and
conventional signs.
|
The present
bachelor’s paper investigates the problem from the point of view of modern
development and proposes a lot of comparisons and examples of English
wide-spread and rare shortenings. Various publicistic and scientific texts
serve as the factual material for the research carried out in the analytical
part.
Having investigated the factual material, the author of
the present work arrives at the conclusion that the process of global
integration plays the leading role in the activization and development of
abbreviations in modern English.
The author hopes that these suggestions and observations
will prove to be useful and helpful contribution to the enormous field of
English philological research.
Appendix I. Specialized article.
|
The Evolution of Third-generation Cellular Standards
Phillip Ames, Wireless Communications and Computing
Group, Intel Corporation
John Gabor, Wireless Communications and Computing
Group, Intel Corporation
|
|
INTRODUCTION
While
no one can predict the future, it is certain that the way we communicate in
the future will be vastly different from today. Video-on-demand, high-speed multimedia,
and mobile Internet are just a few of the communication possibilities.
Third-generation systems will expand the possibilities of information
transfer and communication. "Third Generation" is a term given to
wireless services that, for example, allow users to make video calls from a
mobile terminal, while simultaneously accessing a remote database, or while
receiving e-mails and phone calls.
The First-generation (1G) systems used analog technology. The
current handsets widely deployed today, use Second-generation (2G)
technology, often referred to as "digital." During the transition
from 2G to 3G there will be an interim deployment of 2.5G digital
technology with limited data capabilities, such as short messaging services (ability
to send and receive short text messages from a cellular system).
The
process of developing standards provides independent companies with an
opportunity to influence the standards in such a way that their respective
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR's) will be adopted.
MOBILE/CELLULAR
STANDARDS PROCESS.
|
|
The
standards organizations and partnership projects provide technical input to
the global standards developer for ratification and approval.
The
International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a charter organization
of the United Nations, is the pre-eminent global standards developer for
telecommunications. The ITU-R (radio communications sector) addresses
terrestrial and space (satellite) radio communication. Standards development
organizations and partnership projects, listed below, provide technical input
to the ITU for ratification and approval.
Standards Development Organizations.
Standards Development Organizations (SDOs) are national or
multi-national organizations, actively involved in defining the
next-generation wireless standards, along with refining the ongoing remedial
editing of existing standards SDOs are comprised of various companies who
work together to promote specification proposals. The coordination and
cooperation issues are managed by "Harmonization" groups. The
following is a list of Western standard development organizations, along with
their respective areas of geographical and technical interests:
·
The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
is defining a technology standard for 3G called the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Systems (UMTS).
·
The Japan Association of Radio Industries and Business (ARIB)
primarily focuses on WCDMA for IMT-2000.
·
The primary Canadian SDO is the Telecommunications Standards
Advisory Council of Canada (TSACC).
·
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a US repository for standards considered to be semi-permanent, a nebulous
term for "longer than interim."
·
The United States Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
and T1 have presented several technology proposals on WCDMA, TDMA
UWC-136 (based upon D-AMPS IS-136), and cdma2000 (based upon
IS-95). The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) accredits
both TIA and T1. The primary standards working groups are TR45 (Mobile
& Personal Communications 900 & 1800 Standards and TR46
(Mobile & Personal Communications 1800 only Standards).
The
Asian standards development organizations include the Korean
Telecommunications Technology Association (TTA) and China Wireless
Telecommunications Standards Group (CWTS), Partnership Projects.
The
Third-generation Partnership Project (3GPP) was formed by SDOs and
other related standards' bodies to harmonize European, Asian, and North
American standards proposals and to define a complete set of global technical
specifications for third-generation mobile systems based upon the evolved GSM
core networks and radio access technologies. The project is better known as
"3GPP."
3GPP
is comprised of the following SDOs: ARIB (Japan), CWTS (China), ETSI ( Europe), T1 (USA), and TTA (Korea). The project is divided into
several technical specification groups (TSG's), with each TSG having
multiple working groups, each responsible for defining an aspect of the
third-generation standard.
The
Third-generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) was organized by the SDOs
that were concentrating on the development and evolution of the American
National Standard (ANSI/TIA-41 core networks) and the relevant radio
access technologies. The five SDOs are ARIB (Japan), CWTS (China), TIA (USA), TTA (Korea), and TTC (Japan). Similar to 3GPP, 3GPP2 is also comprised of several
technical specification groups, each with multiple working groups.
|
|
First-Generation
Mobile Standards.
The first generation of cellular wireless communications was based on analog
technology and progressively became available to the consumer during the late
1970's and early 1980's. The most successful analog systems are based on the
following standards, all of which are still in demand today:
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) was the
first commercially available analog system, introduced in Sweden and Norway in 1979.
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) was
launched in 1982. This has proven to be the most successful analog standard
of all. AMPS networks are widely deployed and can be found on all continents.
Total Access Communications System (TACS) was
originally specified for the United Kingdom and is based on AMPS. The
original TACS specification was extended and is known as ETACS. ETACS
is primarily deployed in Asia Pacific regions.
Second-Generation Mobile Standards.
The second-generation (also known as 2G) introduced digital wireless
standards that concentrated on improving voice quality, coverage, and
capacity. The world's four primary mobile digital wireless standards
currently deployed around the world are GSM, TDMA (IS-136), CDMA
(IS-95-B), and PDC, all supporting data rates up to 9.6 kbps.
The
basic development of supporting data at low bit-rates (< 9.6 kbps) was
introduced at the beginning of commercial services and has been predominantly
used for e-mailing from laptop computers.
Time
Division Multiple Access, originally IS-54 and now IS-136 (TDMA
IS-136), is sometimes referred to as the "North American"
digital standard; however, it is also deployed in Latin America, Asia
Pacific, and Eastern Europe.
Personal
Digital Communications (PDC) is the primary digital standard in Japan.
IS-95
is based on "narrowband" (referred to as narrowband because of the
limited amount of information that can flow through these networks) Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technology. It has become popular in South Korea and North America.
Enhanced Second-Generation Mobile Standards.
Enhanced second-generation (sometimes referred to as 2.5G or 2+G) builds upon
the second-generation standards by providing increased bit-rates and bringing
limited data capability. Data rates range from 57.6kbps to 171.2kbps.
High-speed
Circuit-switched Data (HSCSD) provides access to four channels
simultaneously, theoretically providing four times the bandwidth (57.6) of a
standard circuit-switched data transmission of 14.4kbps.
D-AMPS IS-136B Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is the
intermediate step to Universal Wireless Communication (UWC-136), a third-generation
standard. The first phase of D-AMPS will provide up to 64kbps. The second
phase will provide up to 115kbps in a mobile environment.
General
Packet Radio System (GPRS) is an evolutionary path for GSM and IS-136
TDMA to UWC-136. It is a standard from the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) on packet data in GSM systems. The
Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), as the packet-data SDO for
TDMA-136 systems, has also accepted GPRS. GPRS supports
theoretical data rates up to 171.2kbps by utilizing all eight channels
simultaneously.
Third-Generation Mobile Standards.
Third-generation systems will provide wide-area coverage at 384kbps and local
area coverage up to 2Mbps.
Known
as IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000), the
project was started to attain authorship of a set of globally harmonized
standards for broadband mobile communications. The first set of IMT-2000
recommendations was recently approved by the ITU.
How
they do it depends on regulations and market requirements.
The
recent IMT-2000 recommendation highlights five distinct mobile/terrestrial
radio interface standards:
1.
IMT-MC: CDMA Multi-carrier (known as cdma2000 or IS-2000).
2.
IMT-DS: CDMA Direct Spread (known as Wideband CMDA or WCDMA-FDD).
This standard is intended for applications in public macro-cell
and micro-cell environments. The Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) mode
is used for symmetrical applications, i.e., those requiring the same amount
of radio resources in the uplink as in the downlink. This standard is well
supported by Japan's ARIB and GSM network operators and vendors.
3.
IMT-TC: CDMA TDD (WCDMA-TDD). Time Division Duplex
(TDD) targets public micro-cell and pico-cell environments, and, due to
severe interference-related considerations, is intended primarily for indoor
use. This standard is optimized for symmetrical and asymmetrical applications
with high data rates.
4.
IMT-SC: TDMA Single Carrier (known as UWC-136 and EDGE).
UWC-136 (Universal Wireless Communications) and EDGE (Enhanced
Data Rates for GSM Evolution) will provide extended data services, with no
changes to channel structure, frequency, or bandwidth. IMT-SC is the
evolutionary path for GSM and TDMA-136, achieved by building upon enhanced
versions of GSM and TDMA-136 technology. EDGE is a radio-based high-speed
mobile data standard with aggregate transmission speeds of up to 384kbps when
all eight timeslots are used.
5.
IMT-FT: TDMA Multi-carrier (well known as DECT, Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication).
The
IMT-2000 recommendations encompass three CDMA and two TDMA radio air
interface standards.
Wideband
Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) should not be confused with
narrowband CDMA; they are completely different protocols. In CDMA2000, a
range of RF channel bandwidths are supported: 1.25, 3.75, 7.5, 11.25,
and 15MHz. This range allows for support of a range of data rates as
well as a high number of users.
In
order to support higher bandwidth channels, CDMA2000 has defined two
configuration options: Direct Spread (DS) and Multi-carrier (MC).
The DS option is similar to IS-95B and uses the entire bandwidth to spread
the data for radio transmissions. In the MC option, user data is
encoded as a single stream and de-multiplexed into multiple streams. Each
stream carries part of the user data using a different carrier frequency
signal, hence the name Multi-carrier. The receiver will multiplex the
received signals together before demodulation is carried out. Both the DS and
MC options are available in the forward link only. The reverse link supports
only the DS option.
CONCLUSION.
|
|
The
goal of an unqualified single standard for implementation worldwide is not a
reality. Operators have too much invested in their existing infrastructure
and subscriber base; however, limited worldwide roaming will be possible with
3G. Even though the radio interfaces may be different, the handsets will
support dual- or tri-mode operation, making the transition seamless from the
subscriber's perspective.
The
requirements to meet these increasing capabilities are higher performance, low-power
microprocessors, highly integrated FLASH memory, and ASICs that
support dual- or tri-mode standards. Intel is developing these high-performance
semiconductor devices for use in RF equipment base stations and cellular
phones.
ABBREVIATIONS.
The
following table will help you navigate through the multiple acronyms in this
paper.
|
Term
|
Description
|
|
2G
|
Second-generation
|
|
3G
|
Third-generation
|
|
3GPP
|
Third-generation
Partnership Project
|
|
3GPP2
|
Third-generation
Partnership Project 2
|
|
AMPS/D-AMPS
|
Advanced
Mobile Phone System
|
|
ARIB
|
Association
of Radio Industries and Broadcasting
|
|
EDGE
|
Enhanced
Data Rates for GSM Evolution and TDMA-136
|
|
ETSI
|
European
Telecommunications Standards Institute
|
|
FDD
|
Frequency
Division Duplex
|
|
GPRS
|
General
Packet Radio Services
|
|
GSM
|
Global
System for Mobile communication
|
|
HSCSD
|
High-speed
Circuit-switched Data
|
|
IMT-2000
|
International
Mobile Telecommunication-2000
|
|
ITU-R
|
International
Telecommunication Union- Radio Communications
|
|
NMT
|
Nordic
Mobile Telephone
|
|
PDC
|
Personal
Digital Communication
|
|
TACS
|
Total
Access Communications System
|
|
TDD
|
Time
Division Duplex
|
|
TDMA
|
Time
Division Multiple Access
|
|
TIA
|
Telecommunications
Industry Association
|
|
SDO
|
Standards
Development Organization
|
|
WCDMA
|
Wideband
Code Division Multiple Access
|
|
UMTS
|
Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System
|
|
UWC-136
|
Universal
Wireless Communications
|
|
|
|
|
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