Contents:
Introduction
Chapter i. Common
features of nonverbal means of communication
1.1. Notion of non-verbal
means of communication
1.2. Classification of
non-verbal means of communication
Chapter ii. Characteristic
of modern non-verbal communnication (gender aspect)
2.1. Notion of gender
aspect
2.2. Masculinities
2.3.
Feminineties
Chapter iii. The
non-verbal means of communication in business contacts
3.1. Nonverbal
communication in the business contacts
3.2. Extralingustic
factors of nonverbal communication in the business contacts
Chapter iv. The use of
non-verbal means of communication by both genders during job interview
4.1. The description of
the experiment
4.2. The data of
observation
4.3. The results of
observation
Conclusion
Bibiliography
Introduction
The
actuality of this work can be seen in the fact of a growing number of
works, researchings that are devoted to bridging the gap not only between
different cultures but men and women as well.
It is
considered that women have a better sence of deciphering non-verbal signals, noting
details that men might not observe. Besides, there is a great gap between men
and women in their communication and very often misunderstanding and
misinterpretation can ruin the act of interaction.
Men
and women’s non-verbal behavior and body signs play a significant role in oral
communication. Oscar Wilde wrote: “A man’s face is his autobiography; a woman’s
face is her work of fiction”. Life in modern postindustrial world has
evidently changed the role of genders and their interaction.
Although many
books, works and articles are written to signify the advantages of gestures,
their decodation, many people are unaware of the most non-verbal means and this
very often leads to confrontation between them. Moreover the serious studying
of non-verbal communication began only in 60-es of ХХ century.
During
this period of globalization and integration, male and female functions and
personal characteristics underwent cardinal developments. Gradually, woman’s
social passiveness becomes history as well as her being dependent on a man.
Here
above, importance of studying and learning the gestures and the use of them is
transparently imparted. New life terms, social conventions and roles have
caused a drastic change of cultural and communicative traditions, as well as
changes in structure and style of communication between both genders and sometimes
even a conflict.
Considering
what has been mentioned above, we may draw the line stating that although
non-verbal communication means have a great importance to a person in the
nowadays world, the knowledge of it still needs to be specified and categorized
in full.
Too
many questions remain unanswered and aspects to be studied thoroughly. Almost
all linguists are aware of gender linguistics but few people are aware of the
non-verbal communication or non-verbal semiotics as a science discipline that
studies a body placed in culture and society and body signs that form a body
language.
In
the given paper we’ll touch one of the most interesting and contradicting
aspects – gender and age. It can be not so complicated to learn all the rules
of non-verbal behavior in a professional sphere, business communication
or certain social group.
It
also far more difficult to study the reasons of misunderstanding in interaction
of both genders. Thus, if a representative of one gender is aware of the meaning
of this or that gesture it might help him or her choose the correct way of behavior
and therefore avoid misinterpretations and conflicts that happen so often in up
to date world.
In
our research, we’ll define gender common stereotypes and disclose the sources
of typical male and female means of non-verbal communication. Besides, with the
help of a number of methods we will try to analyse and classify gestures that
both genders use in business sphere.
Thus,
the purpose of the given paper is specifying of the most
important peculiarities of gender and age aspects of non-verbal communication.
The object of the given research is to analyze masculine and feminine
typical non-verbal behavior.
The subjects of the given research are the peculiarities of the
masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behavior in the business
communications.
Performance of the purpose of work assumes the decision of several
tasks:
1) To consider
substantive provisions of the theory of nonverbal communication;
2) To analyze
masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behavior;
3) To consider
principles of gender aspect in the non-verbal communications;
4) To define the
main characteristics of nonverbal communication in business contacts;
5) To consider
gender aspect of non-verbal communication during business contacts.
6) To
determine the mens’ and womens’ particular types of non-verbal means of
interaction in business communication.
The decision
of the first three tasks will be carried out on the basis of already available
works. The decision of the rest ones will be opened in the analytical chapter.
The data of
the job interviews was used as a material for research. The correspondents
will consist of 10 females and 10 males, applicants for a job. Attention will
be focused on the first two categories – proxemics and kinesics.
In order to
solve these tasks the author of the research has used
-
the
methods of studying and analysis of theoretical literature and practical
manuals on the problems of study the non-verbal communication;
-
the
methods of observation, description.
The general method that has been adopted to
investigate material combines descriptive and comparative approaches.
The research
will be performed in four
interrelated steps.
1. Analysis
of literature on the problem has logically been the first stage.
2. After it,
theoretical basis of the research has been compiled.
3. Then the
author has picked up examples of jesters during business communication.
4. At last, generalisation of
results of the research and drawing up final items will be performed in the
conclusion.
The theoretical base of the given Paper was composed of works of
the following authors:
-
On the
problems of the nonverbal communication - L. A. Malandro, L. Barker (1983); M.A. Barnett (1983); P. Bull (1987); M. Argyle (1988); C. Bullis, C. Horn (1995); D.
Leathers (1997); M. L. Knapp, J. A. Hall (1997); U. Segerstrale, P. Molnar
(1997); J.Acker (1990); H. Aguinis, M. M. Simonsen, C. A. Pierce (1998); D.B. Givens (2000).
-
On the
social psychology - S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, L.M. Manzella (1996); L.L. Carli,
S.J. LaFleur, C.C. Loeber, F. Connell, R. Geiser (1995).
-
On
the sociology - S.L. Bem (1993); R.W. Connell (1995).
-
On the social linguistics
- V. Manusov (1995); A. Pennycook (1985); U. Segerstrale, P. Molnar (1997); D. Tannen
(1990).
The
structure of the given bachelor Paper is as follows. It comprises three
theoretical chapters and analytical (practical) part, the conclusion and bibliography.
The total volume of the research is 57 pages.
The practical significance
of the research is in possible application of its results in practice of
professional communication. It can be of an interest for people studying
problems of the sociology and psychology. The results of the research can be
taken into consideration by the students of the philology departments. As well
they can be used as material for special courses on social linguistics.
Chapter I. Common features
of
non-verbal means of communication
1.1. notion of non-verbal means of communication
There is a
great deal of books, works, essays etc. devoted to peoples’ interaction and communication
where verbal activity definitely plays a very important role. With the help of
many verbal means a person can express his thoughts and emotions, emphasize
main ideas and create the exact atmosphere. But all this would be of no value
and practically impossible to study without the means of non-verbal
communication.
With the help
of facial gestures and gestures only many people can impart information and
ones emotions and moods as well. It is worth mentioning a performance of the ballet
dancers who would use only motions and gestures to provide the spectators with
information, atmosphere, feelings and characters and not a sound uttered.
Only a century
ago the body language meant a lot for people all over the world. There were no
Television and films broadcasting any sound. Silent movies demanded any actor
to be able to make people laugh and sympathize, cry and be afraid of using only
non-verbal means.
Modern society
has a great deal of communication facilities such as telephone, pager,
cell-phone, internet, telegraph and many others. Thus, gestures of different
kinds are becoming to be less important, as well as studying the meaning of
them.
Although many
books, works and articles are written to signify the advantages of gestures,
their decodation, many people are unaware of the most non-verbal means and this
very often leads to confrontation between them. Moreover the serious studying
of non-verbal communication began only in 60-es of ХХ century.
7% of information is communicated though words
|
|
Communication process is not limited to what we say with words. There are
3 elements of communication:
(Table 1):
38%
55%
Thus, 93% of
communication is non-verbal.
Non-verbal
communication is a silent infiltrator, having broad influence over our social
environment. It provides us with a mode for conveying messages without the use
of verbal language. It may enhance or detract from a verbal communication. It
regulates relationships by affecting the likelihood of introduction and
continued interaction. (Burgoon, 1978:89)
We are able to
infer emotion through nonverbal communication and influence other's perception
of our competence, power and vulnerability. It also plays a role in the
perception of the actual message we are trying to convey. It affects our lives
in a myriad of ways from childhood throughout adulthood, and as long as we
intend to communicate with others.
There are
scores of definitions that researchers and scolars use to define non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication is usually understood as the process of
sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated
through gestures; body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact.
The patterns
of non-verbal communication that people use are defined by their culture,
gender and social status.
There are
several types of Non-verbal communication: Kinesics, Proxemics, Chronemics,
Oculesics, Haptics.
Kinesics – movement of the body
(head, arms, legs, etc.). For example, the gesture of slitting one’s throat in America means “I’ve had enough” or “I’m in trouble” in Swaziland means “I love you”.
Proxemics – the use of
interpersonal space. For example Greeks and South Americans find it comfortable
to stand, sit or talk to people at a distance which seems to North Americans
and some Europeans intolerably close. (Malandro, 1983:109)
The closeness
of Greeks and South Americans is unusual to Europeans and North Americans and
it causes them to have the feelings of hostility, discomfort and intimidation.
However if Americans back away to their distance of comfort they’ll be perceived
as cold, unfriendly and distrustful.
Chronemics – the timing of verbal
exchanges during conversation. Americans expect their partner to respond to
their statement immediately. But, for example in eastern cultures, in Japan or China, they leave silence between each statement.
For Americans
this silence is unsettling and the person might seem shy, inattentive or
nervous. In intercultural situation, it might be best for the visitor to tolerate
the silence and wait for a response.
Oculesics – eye-to-eye contact or
avoidance. Eye contact is very important in communication. People use their
eyes to show interest. It is considered impolite to fix one’s eyes on smb., but
some eye-contact is necessary to show that your interest and attention.
Haptics – is the tactile form of
communication. Where, how and how often people can touch each other while
having a conversation are culturally defined patterns. (Malandro, 1983:112)
Italians and
people in Latin America touch each other more often than Americans and the English.
It also depends on the kind of communication situation one is in.
For example,
in Russia among close friends and the family touching is quite common, whereas
at work it is not appropriate at all.
According to
such scolar as Ahmed A. Khan “non-verbal communication means communication
which is independent of a formal language, communication whereby ideas and
concepts can be expressed without the use of coherent labels.” (Khan, 2001:
Access - www.strangehorozons.com)
Professor G.E.
Kreidlin in his book “Men and women in non-verbal communication” (2005)
considered it as: “... a real and not an illusive contact between people”. In
his another book “Non-verbal Semiotics” he states that: “non-verbal
communication is one of the most important field of signs functioning and information,
it plays a significant role in a man’s life”. (See www.strangehorozons.com)
G.A. Miller
gives the following definitions of it:”non-verbal communication consists of all
the messages other than words that are used in communication. In oral
communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of intonation,
tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body posture, facial expressions or
pauses.
D. Leathers in
his book “Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications”
(1997) defines non-verbal communication “as the process by which nonverbal
behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in
the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or
context.” (Leathers, 1997:56)
He views the
communication as a type of some matrix and distincts between verbal and non-verbal
behaviors that can be divided into vocal and non-vocal behaviors.
Such
researchers of non-verbal communication as M. Wiener, S. Devoe, and Geller J.
view it as “the most basic form of communication”. According to their studies,
non-verbal communication differs from verbal in fundamental ways – “it is less
structured and thus it makes it more difficult to study”. And what is worth
mentioning is that the researchers stated the main difference of non-verbal communication
– “it differs in terms of intent and spontaneity”. (Knapp, Hall, 1997:48)
Indeed when we
say: “please open the door”, we have a conciuos purpose. We think about the
message, if only for a moment. But when we communicate non-verbaly, we
sometimes do so unconsciously. We do not mean to raise an eyebrow or blush.
Those actions come naturally; without our consent, our emotions arewritten on
our faces.
The first
scientific study of non-verbal communication was Charles Darwin’s book “The
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872). He argued that all
mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number
of fields, including kinesics, linguistics, semiotics and social psychology. Proxemics
refers to how people use and interpret space.
While much
nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols which differ from culture
to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be
universally understood. Paul Ekman’s influential 1960s studies of facial
expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness
and surprise are universal. (Feldman, 1992:68)
The complementing function
of nonverbal communication includes nonverbal cues - such as tone of voice,
facial expression, gestures, or distance between people - often serving to complement
the verbal message and add to, clarify, or reinforce the meaning. The term
"complement" indicates that the behavior alone would not communicate
the intended message. "A complementing nonverbal message changes the
meaning of the verbal message by adding additional insights or
information".
Knowledge
of the effects nonverbal communications introduce is needed, because our awareness
may enhance favorable communication. Non-verbal cues may be unconsciously acted
and reacted upon, regulating proximity, gestures, eye gaze and touch. Each
component of nonverbal behavior affects our relationship and interpersonal
environment in intricate ways. Nonverbal cues provide insight into affect states;
influence another's perception of an individual's competence, persuasiveness,
power, sincerity and vulnerability. In a new age where increasing population is
decreasing personal space, it is imperative to understand cultural and personal
communication differences and similarities.
Thus,
we assume that the most important field of science to be observed in order to
specify the range of our research is kinesics.
Kinesics
– is understood as a central section of non-verbal semiotics science dealing
with body language and its parts. It includes such studies as the study of gestures
of hands, mimic gestures, head and leg gestures and postures. (Bull, 1987:109)
All
gestures play different part in communication. It mostly depends upon the
situation of the interaction. Here are some of them given by professor
Kreidlin:
1. Gestures that repeat or
duplicate the actual oral information.
Ex.
to point with the finger, eyes or head in the direction of somebody/something -
such gestures very often accompany the pronouns: this, here, that, there
etc.
2. Some gestures and the
kinesic conduct on the whole can contradict the speech act. Thus, a person
having said that he is calm and moves disorderly, making everything impulsive
as if contradicts himself. A smile can accompany not a kind speech, it
conceals disappointment, concern. Besides it is a protection of ones inner
world against troubles and miseries.
3. Gestures that substitute
the act of speech. An example for this is a nod as a way frequently used
to express agreement; a gesture to put a finger against lips substitutes
the expression of Hush! Quiet!
4. Gestures can emphasize and
reinforce some components of speech. This can be the gesture to stick two
fingers up at someone. Also the example of this is to count
with fingers.
5. Gestures that can supply
the speech. Thus, the gesture to shake fist at somebody is very often
can be added to the actual communication
6. Gestures that perform the
role of an adjustment of verbal communication. These we may find when a person
wants to cut the speaker short to dissagree or ask him a question. (Carli,
1995:1033)
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF
NON-verbal means of communication
Professor
Kreidlin finds the following devision of kinemes:
a)
Kinemes with their own lexical meaning that transfer some meaning without any
verbal context;
b)
Accompanying and emphasizing some verbal piece of communication;
c)
Adjusting the communication process, i.e establishing, maintaining and finishing
the act of communication. (Cit. on Feldman, 1992:23)
Professor
Kreidlin names the kinemes of the first group emblems. He considers them
to be autonomous and “they can act isolately in the process of communication.
Kreidlin
divides emblems from the semantic point of view on two large subclasses – “communicative
and symptomatic emblems”.
Communicative
emblems according to professor Kreidlin are the emblems that provide the
communicator with information on purpose. The largest class of communicative
gestures is neutral communicative gestures (“common gestures”). The
other two subclasses of communicative gestures form
-
indicatory
-
and
etiquette communicative gestures.
The
example of communicative gestures can be to bend ones head, to put a
finger against one’s lips, to give a wink, to shake one’s head, to shake fist
at, to turn away. Symptomatic gestures express the emotional state of the
communicator. These are the following gestures: to bite one’s lips, to
thrum, to stand up, to stamp etc.
The
second type of the gestures is called illustrative. Unlike Communicative
gestures they cannot be used separately of the verbal context and cannot impart
the meaning independently. The gestures are as follows: to lower one’s
eyelid while pronouncing the affirmative sentence, open hands upwards indicating
that the communicator is planning to change the subject of the conversation/
(Ex. “..And now...”)
The
third type of the gestures according to professor Kreidlin is controllers.
They can be presented either parallel withe speech itself or without it. An
example of these can be a nod, to close and open one’s eyes
periodically, to shake one’s head. (Hargie, Dickson, 2004:189)
In
his book “Men and Women in Nonverbal Communication” professor Kreidlin states
that: “Gender differences are remarkable within the use of emblems of hands,
legs and head in particular. Besides obvious contradictions in forms of
realisation of one and the same gesture, there are discrepancies of some male
and female forms of expression the same meaning of body language.
For
instance, expressing the embarrassment men very often rub their chin or nose
and women rub their cheeks or the upper part of the breast.
Thus,
most of the scientists insist that although non-verbal communication can stand alone,
it frequently works with speech. “Our words carry part of the message, and
non-verbal signals carry the rest”.
Experts
in non-verbal communication suggest that it have six specific functions. Here
we have the classification by Wiener M., Devoe S., and Geller J.:
- to provide information,
either consciously or unconsciously;
- to regulate the flow of
conversation;
- to express emotion
- to qualify, complement,
contradict, or expand verbal message;
- to control or influence
others;
- to facilitate specific
tasks, such as teaching a person to swing a golf club. (See Argyle, 1988:38)
In
works of Ahmed A.Khan we may find a similiar specification of functions of
non-verbal communication. He covers it from the speaker’s point of view: “there
are numerous functions of non-verbal behaviour – even if he or she is not aware
of them. Human beings use non-verbal means to persuade or to control others, to
clarify or embelish things, to stress, complement, regulate and repeat verbal
expression. (Access – www.strangehorizons,com)
They
can also be used to sibstitute verbal expression, as this is the case with
several body gestures.” He considers non-verbal communication to be emotionally
expressive and “so any discourse appealing to the receiver’s emotions has a persuasive
impact.” Khan dwells upon the idea that non-verbal behaviour “predates” verbal
communication because “individuals, since birth, rely first on non-verbal means
to express themselves.
This
innate character of non-verbal behaviour is important in communication...” The
hearer obseves the body gestures and facial expressions of the speaker, even
before a sentence is uttered, “trying to make sense of these symbolic messages”.
Although
many non-verbal means are innate and universal, (i.e. people in different
cultures have a common understanding of these cues), the contribution of
non-verbal communication to the total meaning of a discourse can be culturally
determined and differ in different countries.
Generations
of ancient tribes made do with non-verbal means of communication to fulfill
their requirements before they latched on to a language. Most scolars and
researchers incline to oa opinion that whatever the means of non-verbal
communication may be, it will have to be related with senses of the
communicators for it is the senses wich receive information.
In
the view of the above given information there can be defined several means of
non-verbal communication.
1.Body posture
Body
posture is the bearing or the position of the speaker’s body. It is a more or
less stable and thus not to be confused with body gestures which are movements.
Body posture can be characteristic and assumed for a special purpose or it can
correspond to the normal expectations in the context of a particular situation.
A person can be lying down, seating or standing. Normally, these are not the
elements of posture that convey messages. But when the speaker is slouched or
erect, his or her legd crossed or arms folded, such postures convey a degree of
formality or relaxation. They can transfer symbolic messages on the orator’s
attitude orintention with regard to the message.
2. Body gestures
A
body gesture is a movement made with a limb, especially the hands, to express,
confirm, emphasize or back up the speaker’s attitude or intention. This
non-verbal activity is regularly used in oral discourse. If a body act requires
no verbal accompaniment, it is called an “emblem”. Examples are: hand signals
such as waving good-bye, the ‘V’ for victory sign or the ‘high five’ signaling
victory. While some emblems, for instance a clenched fist, have universal
meaning and there are other that are “idiosyncratic or culturally conditioned”.
The use of the zero shape made by the fingers, for example, does not mean the
same in different cultures. Standing for “OK” in the UK, it may be a vulgar
expression in South American cultures.
Getures
can be ambiguous or unambiguous. Point at water and then point to your mouth.
This is an example of an unambiguous gesture – another person watching you is
almost certain to understand that you want to drink water. There is hardly any
chance of misinterpretation here. Body gestures are always perceived and interpreted
together with facial expressions.
3. Facial expressions and eye contact
Facial
expression or it can be called mimic is “expressive motions of facial muscles,
an ability to state one’s thoughts and emotions”. Such a definition of this
kind of gesture we may find in a book entitled “Body language” by Mironova T. Facial
expression are dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude,
emotions, intentions and so on. The face is the primary source of emotions.
During oral communication, facial expressions change continually and are
constantly monitored and interpreted by the receiver. Examples are: a smile, a
frown, raised eyebrow, yawn or sneer. (Hurgie, Dickson, 2004:35)
According
to the works “there is a natural facial expression and an artificial or
immitative. The latter is frequently used by actors to import this or that
feeling. If you observe a person’s facial gesture you can know his state of
mind. It is quite obvious that if a man is frowning thereis a problem that
troubles him. If a man is smiling than he is glad”. (Manusov, 1995:470)
Eye
movement is also a key part of facial behaviour because “the eyes are
invariably involvedin facial displays. The different forms are observed to be
cross-cultural. The frequency of eye contact may suggest either interest or
boredom or may even betray dishonesty. The direct stare of the speaker can show
candour or openness. Downward glances are generally assosiated with modesty;
eyes rolled upwards are conveyed asa sign of fatigue.
Researchers
have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better
than others. For instans, the eyes tend to show hapiness or surprise; a smile,
for one, can communicate friendliness or cooperation. As for the lower face,
brow and forhead are known to reveal mostly anger.
As
for the spheres of non-verbal means disposal, that can be found important in
any sort of occupation concerning communication. The most prominent example is
given in the web-book by Debra L. Roter where the author shows the practical
advantage of knowing the Body Language in a hospital.
According
to Debra L. Roter, “good communication can encourage patients to adhere to
treatment recommendations, cope with the psychological ramifications of their
illness, and have a better clinical outcome. Determine your need to improve
your nonverbal signals and your need to improve your ability to interpret
signals sent by your patients.
Practice
overcoming any bad habits, until you are confident that you are proficient in
body language. It is important to remember that all nonverbal communication is
interpreted, correctly or incorrectly.
The
best way to minimize misinterpretation is to match your nonverbal communication
with the impression you want to make. If you are unsure of the nonverbal messages
you are relaying to patients, videotape some of your consultations to see what
messages you are unconsciously sending. Encourage your colleagues to do the
same, and exchange comments. There is ample evidence that training in
communication, including nonverbal behavior is effective. Your heightened
awareness of the need to acknowledge patients' nonverbal behavior should enrich
the relationships you have with your patients and the quality of healthcare you
offer them. "(Hurgie, Dickson, 2004:65)
Conclusions to the first chapter: Researching of humans’ behavior
stated that verbal communication takes still only 7% and non-verbal communication
– 55% of all everyday communication. Gestures are very important form the very
beginning of a conversation to know if the person is interested or not, sincere
or pretender.
Summing
up the above definitions and classifications of non-verbal communication and
its means, we may come to a conclusion that there is plenty of ways and methods
to express and decode the information, idea, mood, emotions and even intentions
of a person. But the implementation of such knowledge in real life could be
placed in doubt.
In
the whole, the gestures or kinemes can be subdivided to five subclasses:
-
hand gestures,
-
leg and head gestures,
-
facial expressions,
-
postures and manners.
Experts
of non-verbal communication suggest six specific functions of nonverbal
patterns:
1.
Gestures that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
2.
Some gestures and the kinesics conduct on the whole can contradict the speech
act.
3.
Gestures that substitute the act of speech.
4.
Gestures can emphasize and reinforce some components of speech.
5.
Gestures that can supply the speech.
6.
Gestures that perform the role of an adjustment of verbal communication.
chapter II. Characteristic of modern non-VERBAL
COMMUNNICATION (gender aspect)
2.1. notion of gender aspect
There
is much discussion in the literature on the different uses or understandings of
the terms 'sex' and 'gender'. Definitions are reworked and reconstructed as
ideologies and theories change over time.
The
following definition is representative of the current literature: Whereas sex
is generally the term used to indicate biological difference, gender is
the term used to indicate psychological, social and cultural difference. (Claes,
1999:431)
Gender
is determined by social practice and social practice is historically located.
As our understandings develop over time, research findings are interpreted
differently depending on current ideologies, attitudes and viewpoints. Gender
and sexual identities are constantly in a process of change in response to
wider social and familial transformation. (David, 2001:121)
Therefore
femininity and masculinity should be seen as historically mutable
(Claes, 1999:430). Postmodern authors warn that "to separate the two,
regarding sex as reflecting natural anatomical differences and gender as a
matter of cultural identity, is ultimately inadequate and overly
simplistic" (Flax, cited in Fredrick & Atkinson, 1997: 40). The
concepts of sex and gender are not fixed and static but always in process.
One
of the areas to which gender has been widely applied is language. Gender,
language and the relation between them are all social constructs or practices,
under constant development by a group of individuals united in a common
activity, e.g. a family, a sports team, colleagues, etc.
It
is important to note that although many researchers have highlighted linguistic
variations in male and female speech patterns (e.g. Tannen, 1990, 2001;
Spender, 1980), differences in speech patterns may be attributable also to
status, age, ethnicity, geographic location and education. (See Chapter 3)
Both
similarities and differences may be found between groups and within groups; the
complexity means that overly simplistic gender attributions may be wide of the
mark. Davis (cited in Claes, 1999) reminds us that generalizing about language
use on the basis of socio-cultural constructs such as gender or ethnicity is
problematic and can perpetuate a stereotype based on the assumption of group homogeneity.
There are multiple interpretations of femininity and masculinity and behaviors
can vary across time and context.
For
example, a woman in senior management may adopt a more masculine management
style in order to 'fit in' with the dominant culture, sometimes becoming an
'honorary male' in the process. In addition, this co-option process may have
its impact on men who may feel pressured to conform to the dominant image of an
existing managerial model. Other women survive using their own communication
styles in more female friendly sections of the organization, while there are
others who continue to 'rock the boat' (Peters, 2001:134), eventually deciding
to leave in search of a more supportive environment.
There
are currently two approaches to perceived gender differences in conversation
styles: one stresses the dominance factor; the other, the cultural
factor.
The
former focuses on the unequal distribution of power in society: men have more
social power, which enables them to define and control situations. The latter
stresses socialization: men and women learn different communication strategies
and develop distinct conversational styles because they belong to different
subcultures. (Canary, Emmers-Sommer & Faulkner, 1997:79) As with most debates,
the boundaries are blurred, and issues of power and culture intersect.
There
are currently two approaches to perceived gender differences in conversation
styles: one stresses the dominance factor; the other, the cultural
factor. Many researchers and writers agree that masculinity and femininity
are not opposites, but mutually overlapping constructs with multiple
masculinities and multiple femininities.
2.2. masculinities
In
every known body language there exist typical masculine postures, hand and head
gestures (which include facial and eye gestures). According to R.Connell these
are “to lean back on an easy chair, to scratch the back of the head, to rub
hands, to slam fist on the table. Masculine gestures can also be the following
emblem – to stroke beard or to rub one’s chin” He also specifies that it a true
masculine gesture to platform one’s chin on one’s pal, when a man is
thinking; or pulls earlap, rubs forhead, cheeks or the backside of his neck.
(Connell, 1995:30)
The
most indicative masculine gestures we may find during flirtation. R.Connell emphasizes
the following gestures: “If a man wears a tie, he would straighten it for sure.
If he does not have any, he would produce many others instead. He would touch
his cuff links, start smothing his collar, adjust the lappets, and shake the
dust off his shoulder. He would tidy his hair or even take a brush and start
combing his hair. All this proves the fact that a man wants to look more attractive.”
Author
considers that there are also certain aggressive masculine gestures during
flirtation. Thus, showing the hands and hidding the thumbs behind the belt is
an attempt to attract a woman’s attention towards his genitors. The same aim a
man pursues subconsciously when he leans against the wall or sits with his legs
wide. Men also tend to keep greater distances between themselves and others and
exhibit weaker nonverbal communication skills than do women.
A
man expresses his interest towards a woman when he sets his leg forward, bents
his body or gives a long intimate look. If his hands on his hips, therefore he
wants to look broad and strong.
There
are some other typical masculine gestures proffessor Kreidlin points out in
behaviour of pupils. He concludes that using the following gestures boys express
their strength, independance and adultry. They have their hands in pockets;
raise their chins with a proud posture.
They
show their disregard and the absence of interest towards the girls by turning
away or standing half-turn when the latter come up to them. On the other hand
boys always address girls but very often in aggressive way.
D.Tannen
defines five types of ducking that are characteristic of many cultures and
nationalities during the greeting.
a) a straight head;
b) a head bent forward;
c) a head thrown back;
d) a head bent aside;
e) Advanced chin. (Tannen,
1990:111)
According
to their research, men prefer the first and the last way.
It
is typical of male behaviour to rub achin or nose to express the embarrassment;
they accompany the phrase “Never!” with a shake of the head. Also we may find
in his works such male gestures as kissing hands, hand push.
Sometimes people from different cultures misread an
intentional signal, and sometimes they overlook the signal entirely or assume
that a meaningless gesture is significant.
For example, an Arab man indicates a romantic
interest in a woman by running a hand backward across his hair; most
Americans would dismiss this gesture as meaningless. On the other hand, an
Egyptian might mistakenly assume that a Westerner sitting with the sole of
his her shoe showing is offering a grave insult.
The
most indicative masculine gestures we may find during flirtation. There
are five types of mascunalities characteristic of many cultures and nationalities
during the greeting.
f) a straight head;
g) a head bent forward;
h) a head thrown back;
i) a head bent aside;
j) Advanced chin.
2.3. FEMININETIES
Feminine
style of kinetic behaviour, as well as masculine, reflects in special gestures,
postures, gaits and manners. Females’ typical gestures are, for example, to
do up hair, to bend one’s head a bit, to walk swinging the hips, to slap in the
face, to clamp one’s knees, to swing one’s foot. (Fletcher, 1999:89)
On his opinion the most
typical combinations of feminine gestures can be seen in postures. “A woman’s
posture has a definite frontal orientation towards the person whom she likes
and side orientation towards the person whom she dislikes. If she is
interested in a person her hands are open and a bit detained from her body, there
is a smile on her face. It is quite on the contrary when she dislikes the person
– her hands are pressed against her body, no smile on the face.”
Professor
Kreidlin notices that it is a true feminine gesture to incline the head aside expressing
her feeling towards the person she is sitting or standing with at the moment. In
his books he emphasizes tempting feminine gestures and “push away” gestures.
Thus, professor Kreidlin specifies such feminine “push away” gestures as – to
yawn, to frown, to shake one’s head, to cross one’s arms. To make a man
stop looking at her a woman often uses a gesture like to look closely at. (Access
- www.strangehorizons.com)
But
the most effective way, as explained by professor Kreidlin, is to use the
combination of gestures. For instance, if a woman with her arms cross, turns
away towards other people and crosses her legs, looks around the room or stares
at the ceiling; frowns or gives the man a cold look this leaves no doubt about
her intentions.
As
outlined in some researches most of the motion with the help of the neck can be
submitted as a feminine gesture. The statistics shows that women use such
gestures several times more than men.
In
works we come across a great deal of feminine gestures directed towards the
interaction between a woman and a man. She states that the number of gestures
while flirting exceeds the one men have. Gestures very often are more sophisticated
and subtle therefore it causes misunderstanding. Women as well as men use
almost the same gestures to attract attention – they do up hair, put their
thumbs behind the belt. But some gestures obtain another sense. Thus, they use
the posture “hands on hips” to draw the attention to their slim body or suit.
M.
Argyle verifies several typical feminine gestures. Thus, to smooth one’s
clothes is one of the gestures that women use to attract men’s attention.
If a woman is interested in a man she will leer at him. There are such
gestures as to stir one’s hair, to tidy one’s hair or to touch a necklace
on one’s neck all these gestures are ponted to show a wrist. (Argyle,
1988:106)
The
author is sure that a bigger part to flirtation refers to leg gestures. To
cross one’s legs slowly is directed to attract men’s attention, but clench
one’s legs – usually used to estrange men.
Allan
Pease defines the following gestures that are typical for women only. He points
out that a woman sets her legs wider if there is a man near her. While walking
a woman uses such gesture as to shake her hips or to rouge. He
also states another feminine gesture – to rub one’s nose. The meaning of
it is that she is telling lies at the moment or does not trust your words.
L.
Carli, S. LaFleur, C. Loeber, F. Connell,R. Geiser’s study of material from
newsgroups and special interest groups revealed that women used more smiles
than men. Unexpectedly this study found that challenges and flaming were more
common in females than in males.
Conclusions to the second chapter: There are currently two
approaches to perceived gender differences in conversation styles: one stresses
the dominance factor; the other, the cultural factor. Many
researchers and writers agree that masculinity and femininity are not opposites,
but mutually overlapping constructs with multiple masculinities and multiple
femininities.
The
most indicative masculine gestures we may find during flirtation. There
are five types of mascunalities characteristic of many cultures and nationalities
during the greeting.
k) a straight head;
l) a head bent forward;
m) a head thrown back;
n) a head bent aside;
o) Advanced chin.
Feminine
style of kinetic behavior, as well as masculine, reflects in special gestures,
postures, gaits and manners.
Females’
typical gestures are:
a)
to do up hair,
b)
to bend one’s head a bit,
c)
to walk swinging the hips,
d)
to slap in the face,
e)
to clamp one’s knees,
f)
to swing one’s foot.
Chapter Iii. The non-verbal
means of communication in the business contacts
3.1.
nonverbal communication in the business contacts
The
study of the non-verbal communication is very essential applying to business activities.
For one thing, it helps establish credibility and leadership potential. If you
can learn to manage the impression you create with your body language, facial
characteristics, voice, and appearance, you can do a great deal to communicate
that you are competent, trustworthy, and dynamic.
For
example, Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton has developed a homespun style that puts
people at ease, thereby helping them to be more receptive, perhaps even more
open.
Furthermore,
if you can learn to read other people's non-verbal messages, you will be able
to interpret their underlying attitudes and intentions more accurately. When
dealing with co-workers, customers, and clients, watch carefully for small
signs that reveal how the conversation is going. If you aren't having the effect
you want, check your words; then, if your words are all right, try to be aware
of the non-verbal meanings you are transmitting. At the same time, stay tuned
to the non-verbal signals that the other person is sending.
It
is very often of great importance to interpret Body Language correctly especially
the gestures of other cultures. Not less important to avoid those non-verbal
signals of your own that may offend your business partner for one and the same
gesture could have absolutely opposite meanings.
S.
Gherardi states that: “Misinterpretation of non-verbal behavior is the pettiest
source of disagreement between people that could be avoided. For instance, not
many Americans do know that the Chinese dislike touchings and tappings upon the
shoulder or even hand-shaking.” (Gherardi, 2001: 250 - Accessed 1 February
2008: www.//global.umi.com)
Business
communication can be unsuccessful in case if one of the communicators fails to
notice the non-verbal signals the other one uses or may consider them of no
importance. Thus, a person may rub his head in order to think and the other one
can think it is a common physical gesture. And vice versa – typical
physiological gesture (a yawn) could be misinterpreted as a conscious
non-verbal signal (the absence of interest). (Acker, 1990:155)
Although
you can express many things non-verbally, there are limits to what you can communicate
without the help of language. When we transmit the message in spoken or written
form, hoping that someone will hear or read what we have to say.
Table
2 shows how much time business people devote to the various types of verbal
communication. They use speaking and writing to send messages; they use
listening and reading to receive them.
Table 2. Forms of
Business Communication
When we deal with sending business messages,
speaking is more common than writing. Giving instructions, conducting
interviews, working in small groups, attending meetings, and making speeches
are all important activities. Even though writing may be less common, it is
important too. When you want to send a complex message of lasting significance,
you will probably want to put it in writing.
In the whole, people in business spend more time
obtaining information than transmitting it, so to do their jobs effectively;
they need good listening and reading skills.
It is necessary to admit that non-verbal
communication in business contacts is restricted by verbal means of contacts.
Gestures just help to clarify confusing messages.
Among the
skills necessary for successful business communication you need to learn are
the following:
1. Showing
respect. Learn the ways in which respect is communicated - through
gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating
ambiguity.
Learn to control your frustration gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or
confusing situation.
3. Looking
beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such things as dress,
appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending
clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal messages consistent.
3.2. extralingustic factors of nonverbal
communication in the business contacts
Language
(verbal, non-verbal, visual and etc.) is something that enables people to
communicate, but also is something that is handed down culturally as a living
and dominant embodiment of a culture.
It carries in
it the history, the ideas, the images, the traditions and passions of a group
of people. Hence non-verbal language is closely linked to human thought and
experience.
As
a result of living in different societies, environments, and climates, people
develop special needs, acquire habits and customs peculiar to themselves, and
have experiences (and since words are the names we give to our experiences, we
have language differences, too) which, in general, result in particular
patterns and methods and forms of expression and relating (communicating) with
one another. Many examples of this could be given.
People
in a warm, tropical climate, for example, live quite differently from people in
a northern urban area of Europe.
We
need to know about people and their background if we are to understand their
communications. This has important implications for when you may find yourself
doing business in a foreign country. It is important that you become acquainted
with the local culture and be prepared to follow its rules while you are doing
business there.
For
example, in some Latin American countries, men stand quite close together when
talking - much closer than we stand in many western countries. If you, as a Western
business executive, were to find yourself in this situation, find the closeness
uncomfortable, and back away, you would very likely offend your Latin American
business friend.
Your
action would probably create a communication barrier because you would appear
"cold and stand-offish" to your Latin American counterpart.
Business
people do things differently. People communicate in terms of their own
experiences. The situation may appear unusual to your frame of reference because
it is not within the range of your experience; the situation may be perfectly
"normal" to everyone else.
It
is small wonder that we seem always to be surrounded by wars and rumours of
wars. In addition to the barriers of human behaviour and language, our
communication attempts also are complicated by cultural barriers (which
actually are linked with language).
Many
cultural differences take the form of nonverbal communications. The nonverbal
area is relatively new and still is being studied and developed; however, most
of us have had enough experience to be aware of its existence and importance.
One
must be careful to keep this area in perspective and to consider nonverbal
elements as only a part of the total communication effort - while the nonverbal
may be important, it is not always the whole story. If a person frowns while
listening to you speak, it may indicate doubt or disagreement; on the other
hand, the person may have a headache or the light may be bothersome. It is important
for you to remain alert to nonverbal signals, but it is also essential that you
decode them accurately.
Gestures
can be either ambiguous or unambiguous. Point at water and then point to your
mouth. This is an example of an unambiguous gesture. Another person watching
you is almost certain to understand that you want to drink water. There is
hardly any chance of misinterpretation here.
In
our everyday life, we frequently use a combination of words, gestures, and
facial expressions to express our full meaning. Calling someone an "idiot"
with an accompanying smile is different from saying it without a smile.
In
addition, gestures often have different meanings in different circumstances,
depending upon various factors:
-
cultural,
-
geographical,
-
social,
etc. (Segerstrale, 1997:80)
For
instance, if you nod by moving your head up and down, in India it means a concurrence, a "yes," whereas the same gesture in, say, Kuwait would mean the exact opposite, a dissent, a "no."
In
the Indian sub-continent, a woman sometimes uses the gesture of touching
her forefinger to her nose to express astonishment. In the Middle East, the same gesture stands for "at your service," and can be employed
by either sex, but is used predominantly by men. In Iran the gesture that
stands for "at your service" is to put the palm of one's right
hand over one's right eye.
So
differences in body language are a major source of misunderstanding. We may also make the mistake of
assuming that a non-American who speaks English has mastered the body language
of our culture as well.
It
therefore pays to learn some basic differences in the ways people supplement
their words with body movement. Take the signal for no.
For instance,
-
North Americans shake their heads
back and forth;
-
the Japanese move their right hands;
-
Sicilians raise their chins. (Pennycook,
1985:280)
We must underline the great meaning of taking eye
contact. North Americans read each other through eye contact. They may
assume that a person who won't meet our gaze is evasive and dishonest.
But in many parts of Latin America, keeping your
eyes lowered is a sign of respect. It's also a sign of respect among many
black Americans, which some schoolteachers have failed to learn. When they
scold their black students, saying "Look at me when I'm talking to
you," they only create confusion for the children.
What is polite in one country may be considered rude
in another. But there are also certain patterns common with many different
cultures. (See Figure 1)
Figure 1. Examples of common gestures
which have different functions and meanings in different cultures.
Nonverbal and verbal communication are
normally inseparable, which, for example, is why it may seem so difficult to
use the telephone in a foreign language. It needs to be taught and practiced
situationally, in the right contexts, and with plenty of cultural input and
awareness.
In Arab countries, for example, it is impolite to
take gifts to a man's wife but acceptable to take gifts to his children.
In Germany, giving a woman a red rose is
considered a romantic invitation, inappropriate if you are trying to establish
a business relationship with her.
In India, you might be invited to visit someone's
home "any time." Being reluctant to make an unexpected visit, you
might wait to get a more definite invitation. But your failure to take the
Indian literally is an insult, a sign that you do not care to develop the
friendship.
Wherever you are, you should not look out of place. It
is necessary to wear something you look natural in, something you know how to
wear and something that fits in with your surroundings.
For example, a woman dressed in a tailored suit, even
with high heels and flowery blouse, looks startlingly masculine in a country
full of diaphanous saris. More appropriate attire might be a silky,
loose-fitting dress in a bright color. With few exceptions, the general rule for
business is that you should be very buttoned up: conservative suit and tie
for men, dress or skirt-suit for women.
The different
cultures an individual is involved with influence each other. When for instance
a person is both a Dutchman and a rock singer, his Dutchness (language, ethics,
etc) will affect his execution of his job as a singer within rock-culture and
vice versa. (Brennan, 1999:13)
Conclusions to the third
chapter: Nonverbal communication in business contacts
is restricted by verbal means of contacts. Gestures just help to clarify confusing
messages.
Among the
skills necessary for successful business communication you need to learn are
the following:
1. Showing
respect. Learn the ways in which respect is communicated - through
gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating
ambiguity.
Learn to control your frustration gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or
confusing situation.
3. Looking
beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such things as dress,
appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending
clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal messages consistent.
The ways of
non-verbal communication differ from culture to culture. We should be aware of
those differences in order not to be misunderstood and to properly understand
other people.
It’s
impossible to find pure forms of business communication. A culture has to be
completely isolated and sheltered from external influences, to be able to exist
in a pure form. But also within a specific culture we would find
differentiation through, for example, gender, class and age.
Because of
these characteristics, non-verbal business communication has to be defined as
‘hybrid’.
Chapter IV. The use of
non-verbal means of communication by both genders during job interview
4.1. The description of the experiment
The
general method. The most appropriate methology of this research was focused
observation schedule with which I made a qualitative analysis based on gender
and the non-verbal communication patterns observed.
2
hours long the job interview of applicants at the company “Baltic” were attended.
The correspondents consisted of 10 females and 10 males. The data were analyzed
according to the aforementioned nonverbal communication categories: proxemics,
kinesics, haptics and artifactual communication.
However,
due to time constricts attention has been focused on the first two categories –
proxemics and kinesics.
It
is estimated that less than 10 % of interpersonal communication during the
interview involved words, the remainder being made up of voice tone, sounds and
a variety of devices such as kinetics (movement), haptics (touch), oculesics
(eye-contact), proxemics (space) and chronomics (time) as well as posture,
sound symbols and silence, which either replace or accompany words. (See Table
3)
Table
3. The subjects of analysis
|
Kinesics
|
body
motions (blushes, shrugs, eye movement, foot-tapping, drumming fingers)
|
|
Proxemics
|
spatial
separation (in relation both the social and physical environment)
|
|
Haptics
|
touch
|
|
Oculesics
|
eye contact
|
|
Chronemics
|
use
of time, waiting, pausing
|
|
Olfactics
|
smell
|
|
Vocalics
|
tone
of voice, timbre, volume, speed
|
|
Sound
Symbols
|
grunting,
mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling,
|
|
Silence
|
absence
of sound (muteness, stillness, secrecy)
|
|
Adornment
|
clothing,
jewellery, hairstyle
|
|
Posture
|
position
of the body (characteristic or assumed)
|
|
Expression
|
frowns,
grimaces, smirks, smiles, pouting
|
The
following reactions of correspondents were observed: Table 4.
|
Form
|
Main Function (in some
cultures)
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
|
Shrug (I
don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
|
Scratch
head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
|
Tone of
voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating,
turn taking
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
|
Eye
movements
|
Deceiving
|
|
Staring/Looking
down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
|
Touching,
kissing
|
Arousal
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
There
were found five types of mascunalities during the interviews:
a)
straight head;
b)
head bent forward;
c)
head thrown back;
d)
head bent aside;
e)
advanced chin.
There
were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a)
to do up hair,
b)
to bend one’s head a bit,
c)
to walk swinging the hips,
d)
to slap in the face,
e)
to clamp one’s knees,
f)
to swing one’s foot.
4.2. The data of observation
The
job interviews of 22 respondents have demonstrated the certain differences in
the nonverbal communication patterns of female and males. (See Table 5)
Table 5. Nonverbal patterns essential for males and
females (of total quantity 10 – men and 10 women).
|
Types of nonverbal patterns
|
Versions
of nonverbal typology
|
Males before 35 years
|
Males after 35 years
|
Females before 35 years
|
Females after
35 years
|
|
Kinesics
|
body motions (blushes, shrugs, eye
movement, foot-tapping, drumming fingers)
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
|
Proxemics
|
spatial
separation (in relation both the social and physical environment)
|
5
|
5
|
3
|
4
|
|
Haptics
|
touch
|
2
|
1
|
7
|
3
|
|
Oculesics
|
eye contact
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
|
Chronemics
|
use
of time, waiting, pausing
|
4
|
6
|
3
|
4
|
|
Olfactics
|
smell
|
4
|
6
|
5
|
5
|
|
Vocalics
|
tone
of voice, timbre, volume, speed
|
5
|
5
|
3
|
5
|
|
Sound
Symbols
|
grunting,
mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling,
|
7
|
3
|
3
|
4
|
|
Silence
|
absence
of sound (muteness, stillness, secrecy)
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
|
Adornment
|
clothing,
jewellery, hairstyle
|
4
|
3
|
6
|
4
|
|
Posture
|
position
of the body (characteristic or assumed)
|
4
|
4
|
5
|
5
|
|
Expression
|
frowns,
grimaces, smirks, smiles, pouting
|
7
|
3
|
7
|
3
|
Men
and women tended to follow most patterns in the area of kinesics reported in
the literature review in the second Chapter. (See Table 5)
Table 6. Patterns in the area of kinesics demonstrated
during the interview. Gender aspect.
|
FORM
|
MAIN FUNCTIONS (in some cultures)
|
MALES
|
FEMALES
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
10
|
10
|
|
Shrug (I don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
7
|
8
|
|
Scratch head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
9
|
1
|
|
Tone of voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
6
|
9
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating, turn taking
|
8
|
5
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
9
|
9
|
|
Eye movements
|
Deceiving
|
8
|
10
|
|
Staring/Looking down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
9
|
9
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
6
|
3
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
10
|
8
|
|
Touching
|
Arousal
|
2
|
7
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
7
|
7
|
The
statistics shows that women use such gestures several times more than men.
Table 7. Patterns in the area of kinesics demonstrated
during the interview. Age aspect.
|
FORM
|
MAIN FUNCTIONS (in some cultures)
|
Males before 35 years
|
Males after 35 years
|
Females before 35 years
|
Females after
35 years
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
7
|
3
|
8
|
2
|
|
Shrug (I don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
4
|
3
|
4
|
4
|
|
Scratch head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
7
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
|
Tone of voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
3
|
3
|
6
|
3
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating, turn taking
|
4
|
4
|
2
|
3
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
6
|
3
|
6
|
3
|
|
Eye movements
|
Deceiving
|
4
|
4
|
5
|
5
|
|
Staring/Looking down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
5
|
4
|
5
|
4
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
3
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
5
|
5
|
2
|
6
|
|
Touching
|
Arousal
|
2
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
5
|
2
|
5
|
2
|
It
was found that as age increases the coding proficiency increases for postures
and gestures. The older correspondents are more proficient at coding gestures,
but not postures or facial expressions.
4.3. The results of observation
According
to the Tables 5-7, the data analysis allowed carrying out comparing gender and age as variables,
showing the following noticeable differences in nonverbal communication:
1.
It was found as age increases the coding proficiency increases for postures and
gestures, but not facial expressions.
2.
There have been contradictory results showing older correspondents are more
proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or facial expressions.
Female indicators
1.
It has been consistently found, however, that adult women are better than men
at coding and using nonverbal communication.
2.
Research indicates a woman's superior ability in demonstrating of a variety of
nonverbal cues regardless of the age or sex of the sender.
3.
Women were more accurate with visual communication. (See Table 5)
4.
Women using a task style were considered less likeable and therefore less
persuasive than men.
Note.
It was caused by a causal factor of fostered in women and care giving is their
expected gender role rather than men. The greater interpersonal sensitivity
may be due to disadvantaged status. The disadvantage creates a greater motive
for women to accurately interpret nonverbal cues.
Women's
nonverbal communication ability may be based on interpersonal cognitive complexity
rather than status or value placed on learned nurturance. It was evidently
caused by women's lower status which may negatively influence perceptions of
power and therefore hinder credibility and persuasiveness.
Male indicators
1.
Men were more accurate with vocal communication. (See Table 5)
2.
It was found the task style used by the sender and the perceived competence,
were better predictors of persuasiveness than the sender's gender.
3.
Likableness along with competence was not good predictors for men's persuasive
ability.
Note. If there were
high motivation for the receiver to use the message properly, then they would
be more likely to attend to all communication cues, verbal and nonverbal.
Nonverbal
communication during the interviews was formatted with the extralinguistic
factors. (See Figure 2)
Figure 2. Body Concept and
Techniques
The resume of analysis
1.
Differences in gender have affected the types of persuasive styles.
2.
Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase perception of power and
influence.
3.
In
sum this research project has found the evidence that even nonverbal communication
patterns reflect gender differences.
4.
Males or females with higher cognitive complexity showed greater decoding
ability.
5.
It was found that nervous facial expressions and indirect eye contact hindered
perceptions of power and credibility both with men and women.
Conclusions to the fourth chapter: The analytical part of research was
aimed at analysis of the masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behaviors.
There
were found five types of mascunalities during the interviews:
a)
straight head;
b)
head bent forward;
c)
head thrown back;
d)
head bent aside;
e)
advanced chin.
There
were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a)
to do up hair,
b)
to bend one’s head a bit,
c)
to walk swinging the hips,
d)
to slap in the face,
e)
to clamp one’s knees,
f)
to swing one’s foot.
It
was found that as age increases the coding proficiency increases for postures
and gestures. The older correspondents are more proficient at coding gestures,
but not postures or facial expressions.
The
following resumes of carried work can be formulated:
1.
Differences in gender have affected the types of persuasive styles.
2.
Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase perception of power and
influence.
3.
In
sum this research project has found the evidence that even nonverbal communication
patterns reflect gender differences.
4.
Males or females with higher cognitive complexity showed greater decoding
ability.
5.
It was found that nervous facial expressions and indirect eye contact hindered
perceptions of power and credibility both with men and women.
Conclusion
The mirroring
of other people's body language is advocated in such fields as neuro-linguistic
programming, so it seems that our intercultural effectiveness is likely to be
enhanced if can at least go some way towards acting like our counterparts.
Researching of
humans’ behavior stated that verbal communication takes still only 7% and
non-verbal communication – 55% of all everyday communication. Gestures are very
important form the very beginning of a conversation to know if the person is
interested or not, sincere or pretender. (See Table 1)
There are 3
elements of communication: (Table 1):
38%
55%
Performance of the purpose of work assumed the decision of several
tasks:
A. The
substantive provisions of the theory of nonverbal communication were considered.
The
theoretical part of research has shown the following:
1)
There is plenty of ways and methods to express and decode the information,
idea, mood, emotions and even intentions of a person.
2)
In the whole, the gestures or kinemes can be subdivided to five
subclasses:
-
hand gestures,
-
leg and head gestures,
-
facial expressions,
-
postures and manners.
3)
Experts of non-verbal communication suggest six specific functions of nonverbal
patterns:
1.
Gestures that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
2.
Some gestures and the kinesics conduct on the whole can contradict the speech
act.
3.
Gestures that substitute the act of speech.
4.
Gestures can emphasize and reinforce some components of speech.
5.
Gestures that can supply the speech.
6.
Gestures that perform the role of an adjustment of verbal communication.
4)
Communications in international business more than 90% of the social content of
a message is contained in non-verbal cues.
5) The
sending and receipt of non-verbal messages takes place on a subliminal level
and this makes it a much more difficult aspect of international business
communications to master. A person can prepare his speech, find the necessary
argumentation, but if he ignores his partner’s and his own gestures, the negotiations
will not give immediate results or even worse might be deadlock.
6) The ways of
non-verbal communication differ from culture to culture. We should be aware of
those differences in order not to be misunderstood and to properly understand
other people.
7) But also
within a specific culture we would find differentiation through, for example,
gender, class and age. Because of these characteristics, non-verbal
communication has to be defined as ‘hybrid’.
8)
There are currently two approaches to perceived gender differences in
conversation styles:
- one
stresses the dominance factor;
-
the
other, the cultural-experiencel factor. (See Figure 2)
We see the nonverbal
communication during the interviews as formatted with the extralinguistic
factors.
Figure 2. Body Concept and
Techniques
All these
factors influenced on the situational nonverbal behavior of correspondents.
9) There are
the following general nonverbal skills necessary for successful business
communication:
1. Showing
respect. Learn the ways in which respect is communicated - through
gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating
ambiguity.
Learn to control your frustration gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or confusing
situation.
3. Looking
beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such things as dress,
appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending
clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal messages consistent.
B. The
analytical part of research was aimed at analysis of the masculine and feminine
typical non-verbal behaviors.
The
general method of experimental work was focused observation
schedule with which I made a qualitative analysis based on gender and the
non-verbal communication patterns observed.
2
hours long the job interview of applicants at the company “Baltic” were attended.
The correspondents consisted of 10 females and 10 males. Due to time
constricts attention has been focused on the first two categories – proxemics
and kinesics.
1) There were
found five types of mascunalities during the interviews:
a)
straight head;
b)
head bent forward;
c)
head thrown back;
d)
head bent aside;
e)
advanced chin.
There
were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a)
to do up hair,
b)
to bend one’s head a bit,
c)
to walk swinging the hips,
d)
to slap in the face,
e)
to clamp one’s knees,
f)
to swing one’s foot.
2) The results of observation are
the following:
The
data analysis allowed carrying out comparing gender and age as variables,
showing the following noticeable differences in nonverbal communication:
1.
It was found as age increases the coding proficiency increases for postures and
gestures, but not facial expressions.
2.
There have been contradictory results showing older correspondents are more
proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or facial expressions. (According to
the Tables 5-7)
Were
determined the following male and female behavior stereotypes.
Female indicators
1.
It has been consistently found that adult women are better than men at coding
and using nonverbal communication.
2.
Research indicates a woman's superior ability in demonstrating of a variety of
nonverbal cues regardless of the age or sex of the sender.
3.
Women were more accurate with visual communication. (See Table 5)
4.
Women using a task style were considered less likeable and therefore less
persuasive than men.
Note.
It was caused by a causal factor of fostered in women and care giving is their
expected gender role rather than men. The greater interpersonal sensitivity
may be due to disadvantaged status. The disadvantage creates a greater motive
for women to accurately interpret nonverbal cues.
Women's
nonverbal communication ability may be based on interpersonal cognitive complexity
rather than status or value placed on learned nurturance. It was evidently
caused by women's lower status which may negatively influence perceptions of
power and therefore hinder credibility and persuasiveness.
Male indicators
1.
Men were more accurate with vocal communication. (See Table 5)
2.
It was found the task style used by the sender and the perceived competence,
were better predictors of persuasiveness than the sender's gender.
3.
Likableness along with competence was not good predictors for men's persuasive
ability.
Note. If there were
high motivation for the receiver to use the message properly, then they would
be more likely to attend to all communication cues, verbal and nonverbal.
The resume of analysis
1. Differences
in gender have affected the types of persuasive styles.
2.
Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase perception of power and
influence.
3. The statistics shows
that women use such gestures several times more than men.
4. Males or
females with higher cognitive complexity showed greater decoding ability.
5. It was found
that nervous facial expressions and indirect eye contact hindered perceptions
of power and credibility both with men and women.
6. Masculinity and femininity are not always
opposites, but sometimes in the business sphere mutually overlapping constructs
with multiple masculinities and multiple femininities.
7. In sum this research project has found the evidence that in the
majority of situations the nonverbal communication patterns reflect gender
differences.
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