Contents:
Introduction
Chapter 1. Common features of nonverbal means of
communication
1.1. Notion of non-verbal means of communication
1.2. Classification of non-verbal means of communication
Chapter 2. Characteristic of modern non-verbal
communnication (gender aspect)
2.1. Notion of gender aspect
2.2. Masculinities
2.3. Feminineties
Chapter 3. The non-verbal
means of communication in business contacts
3.1. Nonverbal
communication in the business contacts
3.2. Extralingustic factors of nonverbal communication in
the business contacts
Chapter 4. The use of
non-verbal means of communication by both genders during job interview
4.1. The description of the experiment
4.2. The data of observation
4.3. The results of observation
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The actuality of this work can be seen in the fact of a
growing number of works, researchings that are devoted to bridging the gap not
only between different cultures but men and women as well.
It is considered that women have a better sence of deciphering non-verbal
signals, noting details that men might not observe. Besides, there is a great
gap between men and women in their communication and very often misunderstanding
and misinterpretation can ruin the act of interaction.
Men and women’s non-verbal behavior and body signs play a
significant role in oral communication. Oscar Wilde wrote: “A man’s face is his
autobiography; a woman’s face is her work of fiction”. Life in modern
postindustrial world has evidently changed the role of genders and their interaction.
Although many books, works and articles are written to signify the advantages
of gestures, their decodation, many people are unaware of the most non-verbal
means and this very often leads to confrontation between them. Moreover the
serious studying of non-verbal communication began only in 60-es of ХХ
century.
During this period of globalization and integration, male
and female functions and personal characteristics underwent cardinal
developments. Gradually, woman’s social passiveness becomes history as well as
her being dependent on a man.
Here above, importance of studying and learning the
gestures and the use of them is transparently imparted. New life terms, social
conventions and roles have caused a drastic change of cultural and
communicative traditions, as well as changes in structure and style of
communication between both genders and sometimes even a conflict.
Considering what has been mentioned above, we may draw the
line stating that although non-verbal communication means have a great
importance to a person in the nowadays world, the knowledge of it still needs
to be specified and categorized in full.
Too many questions remain unanswered and aspects to be
studied thoroughly. Almost all linguists are aware of gender linguistics but
few people are aware of the non-verbal communication or non-verbal semiotics as
a science discipline that studies a body placed in culture and society and body
signs that form a body language.
In the given paper we’ll touch one of the most interesting
and contradicting aspects – gender and age. It can be not so complicated to
learn all the rules of non-verbal behavior in a professional sphere,
business communication or certain social group.
It also far more difficult to study the reasons of
misunderstanding in interaction of both genders. Thus, if a representative of
one gender is aware of the meaning of this or that gesture it might help him or
her choose the correct way of behavior and therefore avoid misinterpretations
and conflicts that happen so often in up to date world.
In our research, we’ll define gender common stereotypes
and disclose the sources of typical male and female means of non-verbal
communication. Besides, with the help of a number of methods we will try to
analyse and classify gestures that both genders use in business
sphere.
Thus, the purpose of the given paper is specifying
of the most important peculiarities of gender and age aspects of non-verbal
communication.
The object of the given
research is to analyze masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behavior.
The subjects of the given
research are the peculiarities of the masculine and feminine typical non-verbal
behavior in the business communications.
Performance of the purpose of work assumes the
decision of several tasks:
1) To consider substantive provisions of the theory of nonverbal communication;
2) To analyze masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behavior;
3) To consider principles of gender aspect in the non-verbal communications;
4) To define the main characteristics of nonverbal communication in business
contacts;
5) To consider gender aspect of non-verbal communication during business
contacts.
6) To determine the mens’ and womens’ particular types of non-verbal
means of interaction in business communication.
The decision of the first three tasks will be carried out on the basis
of already available works. The decision of the rest ones will be opened in the
analytical chapter.
The data of the job interviews was used as a material for research.
The correspondents will consist of 10 females
and 10 males, applicants for a job. Attention will be focused on the first two categories – proxemics and
kinesics.
In order to solve these tasks the author of the research has used
-
the methods of studying and analysis of theoretical
literature and practical manuals on the problems of study the non-verbal
communication;
-
the methods of observation, description.
The general method that has been
adopted to investigate material combines descriptive and comparative
approaches.
The research will be performed
in four interrelated steps.
1. Analysis of literature on the problem has logically been the first
stage.
2. After it, theoretical basis of the research has been compiled.
3. Then the author has picked up examples of jesters during business communication.
4. At last, generalisation of results of the research and drawing up
final items will be performed in the conclusion.
The
theoretical base of the given Paper was composed of works of the following
authors:
-
On the problems of the nonverbal communication - L. A.
Malandro, L. Barker (1983); M.A. Barnett (1983); P. Bull
(1987); M. Argyle (1988); C. Bullis, C. Horn (1995); D. Leathers (1997);
M. L. Knapp, J. A. Hall (1997); U. Segerstrale, P. Molnar (1997); J.Acker
(1990); H. Aguinis, M. M. Simonsen, C. A. Pierce (1998); D.B. Givens
(2000).
-
On the social psychology - S. M. Andersen, I. Reznik, L.M.
Manzella (1996); L.L. Carli, S.J. LaFleur, C.C. Loeber, F. Connell, R. Geiser
(1995).
-
On the sociology - S.L. Bem (1993); R.W. Connell (1995).
-
On the social linguistics - V. Manusov
(1995); A. Pennycook (1985); U. Segerstrale, P. Molnar (1997); D. Tannen (1990).
The structure of the given
bachelor Paper is as follows. It comprises three theoretical chapters and
analytical (practical) part, the conclusion and bibliography. The total volume
of the research is 57 pages.
The practical significance of the research
is in possible application of its results in practice of professional
communication. It can be of an interest for people studying problems of the sociology
and psychology. The results of the research can be taken into consideration by the
students of the philology departments. As well they can be used as material for
special courses on social linguistics.
Chapter I. Common features of
non-verbal means of communication
1.1. notion
of non-verbal means of communication
There is a great deal of books, works, essays etc. devoted to peoples’
interaction and communication where verbal activity definitely plays a very
important role. With the help of many verbal means a person can express his
thoughts and emotions, emphasize main ideas and create the exact atmosphere.
But all this would be of no value and practically impossible to study without
the means of non-verbal communication.
With the help of facial gestures and gestures only many people can impart
information and ones emotions and moods as well. It is worth mentioning a performance
of the ballet dancers who would use only motions and gestures to provide the
spectators with information, atmosphere, feelings and characters and not a
sound uttered.
Only a century ago the body language meant a lot for people all over the
world. There were no Television and films broadcasting any sound. Silent movies
demanded any actor to be able to make people laugh and sympathize, cry and be afraid
of using only non-verbal means.
Modern society has a great deal of communication facilities such as telephone,
pager, cell-phone, internet, telegraph and many others. Thus, gestures of
different kinds are becoming to be less important, as well as studying the meaning
of them.
Although many books, works and articles are written to signify the advantages
of gestures, their decodation, many people are unaware of the most non-verbal means
and this very often leads to confrontation between them. Moreover the serious
studying of non-verbal communication began only in 60-es of ХХ
century.
7% of information is communicated though words
|
|
Communication
process is not limited to what we say with words. There are 3 elements of communication:
(Table 1):
38%
55%
Thus, 93% of communication is non-verbal.
Non-verbal communication is a silent infiltrator, having broad influence
over our social environment. It provides us with a mode for conveying messages
without the use of verbal language. It may enhance or detract from a verbal communication.
It regulates relationships by affecting the likelihood of introduction and
continued interaction. (Burgoon, 1978:89)
We are able to infer emotion through nonverbal communication and influence
other's perception of our competence, power and vulnerability. It also plays a
role in the perception of the actual message we are trying to convey. It
affects our lives in a myriad of ways from childhood throughout adulthood, and
as long as we intend to communicate with others.
There are scores of definitions that researchers and scolars use to
define non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is usually understood
as the process of sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be
communicated through gestures; body language or posture; facial expression and eye
contact.
The patterns of non-verbal communication that people use are defined by
their culture, gender and social status.
There are several types of Non-verbal communication: Kinesics, Proxemics,
Chronemics, Oculesics, Haptics.
Kinesics – movement of the body (head, arms, legs, etc.). For
example, the gesture of slitting one’s throat in America means “I’ve had
enough” or “I’m in trouble” in Swaziland means “I love you”.
Proxemics – the use of interpersonal space. For example Greeks
and South Americans find it comfortable to stand, sit or talk to people at a
distance which seems to North Americans and some Europeans intolerably close. (Malandro,
1983:109)
The closeness of Greeks and South Americans is unusual to Europeans and
North Americans and it causes them to have the feelings of hostility, discomfort
and intimidation. However if Americans back away to their distance of comfort
they’ll be perceived as cold, unfriendly and distrustful.
Chronemics – the timing of verbal exchanges during conversation.
Americans expect their partner to respond to their statement immediately. But,
for example in eastern cultures, in Japan or China, they leave silence between
each statement.
For Americans this silence is unsettling and the person might seem shy, inattentive
or nervous. In intercultural situation, it might be best for the visitor to
tolerate the silence and wait for a response.
Oculesics – eye-to-eye contact or avoidance. Eye contact is
very important in communication. People use their eyes to show interest. It is
considered impolite to fix one’s eyes on smb., but some eye-contact is
necessary to show that your interest and attention.
Haptics – is the tactile form of communication. Where, how
and how often people can touch each other while having a conversation are
culturally defined patterns. (Malandro, 1983:112)
Italians and people in Latin America touch each other more often than
Americans and the English. It also depends on the kind of communication situation
one is in.
For example, in Russia among close friends and the family touching is
quite common, whereas at work it is not appropriate at all.
According to such scolar as Ahmed A. Khan “non-verbal communication means
communication which is independent of a formal language, communication whereby
ideas and concepts can be expressed without the use of coherent labels.” (Khan,
2001: Access - www.strangehorozons.com)
Professor G.E. Kreidlin in his book “Men and women in non-verbal communication”
(2005) considered it as: “... a real and not an illusive contact between
people”. In his another book “Non-verbal Semiotics” he states that: “non-verbal
communication is one of the most important field of signs functioning and information,
it plays a significant role in a man’s life”. (See www.strangehorozons.com)
G.A. Miller gives the following definitions of it:”non-verbal communication
consists of all the messages other than words that are used in communication.
In oral communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of
intonation, tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body posture, facial expressions
or pauses.
D. Leathers in his book “Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles
and Applications” (1997) defines non-verbal communication “as the process by
which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal
behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation
or context.” (Leathers, 1997:56)
He views the communication as a type of some matrix and distincts between
verbal and non-verbal behaviors that can be divided into vocal and non-vocal behaviors.
Such researchers of non-verbal communication as M. Wiener, S. Devoe, and
Geller J. view it as “the most basic form of communication”. According to their
studies, non-verbal communication differs from verbal in fundamental ways – “it
is less structured and thus it makes it more difficult to study”. And what is
worth mentioning is that the researchers stated the main difference of
non-verbal communication – “it differs in terms of intent and spontaneity”. (Knapp,
Hall, 1997:48)
Indeed when we say: “please open the door”, we have a conciuos purpose.
We think about the message, if only for a moment. But when we communicate
non-verbaly, we sometimes do so unconsciously. We do not mean to raise an eyebrow
or blush. Those actions come naturally; without our consent, our emotions
arewritten on our faces.
The first scientific study of non-verbal communication was Charles Darwin’s
book “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872). He argued
that all mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across
a number of fields, including kinesics, linguistics, semiotics and social
psychology. Proxemics refers to how people use and interpret space.
While much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols which
differ from culture to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic
and may be universally understood. Paul Ekman’s influential 1960s studies of
facial expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy,
sadness and surprise are universal. (Feldman, 1992:68)
The
complementing function of nonverbal communication includes nonverbal cues -
such as tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, or distance between people -
often serving to complement the verbal message and add to, clarify, or reinforce
the meaning. The term "complement" indicates that the behavior alone
would not communicate the intended message. "A complementing nonverbal
message changes the meaning of the verbal message by adding additional insights
or information".
Knowledge of the effects nonverbal communications
introduce is needed, because our awareness may enhance favorable communication.
Non-verbal cues may be unconsciously acted and reacted upon, regulating
proximity, gestures, eye gaze and touch. Each component of nonverbal behavior
affects our relationship and interpersonal environment in intricate ways. Nonverbal
cues provide insight into affect states; influence another's perception of an
individual's competence, persuasiveness, power, sincerity and vulnerability. In
a new age where increasing population is decreasing personal space, it is
imperative to understand cultural and personal communication differences and
similarities.
Thus, we assume that the most important field of science
to be observed in order to specify the range of our research is kinesics.
Kinesics – is understood as a central section of
non-verbal semiotics science dealing with body language and its parts. It includes
such studies as the study of gestures of hands, mimic gestures, head and leg
gestures and postures. (Bull, 1987:109)
All gestures play different part in communication. It
mostly depends upon the situation of the interaction. Here are some of them
given by professor Kreidlin:
1.
Gestures that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
Ex. to point with the finger, eyes or head in the
direction of somebody/something - such gestures very often accompany the
pronouns: this, here, that, there etc.
2.
Some gestures and the kinesic conduct on the whole can
contradict the speech act. Thus, a person having said that he is calm and moves
disorderly, making everything impulsive as if contradicts himself. A smile can
accompany not a kind speech, it conceals disappointment, concern. Besides it is
a protection of ones inner world against troubles and miseries.
3.
Gestures that substitute the act of speech. An example for
this is a nod as a way frequently used to express agreement; a gesture to
put a finger against lips substitutes the expression of Hush! Quiet!
4.
Gestures can emphasize and reinforce some components of
speech. This can be the gesture to stick two fingers up at someone. Also
the example of this is to count with fingers.
5.
Gestures that can supply the speech. Thus, the gesture to
shake fist at somebody is very often can be added to the actual
communication
6.
Gestures that perform the role of an adjustment of verbal
communication. These we may find when a person wants to cut the speaker short
to dissagree or ask him a question. (Carli, 1995:1033)
1.2.
CLASSIFICATION OF NON-verbal means of
communication
Professor Kreidlin finds the following devision of kinemes:
a) Kinemes with their own lexical meaning that transfer
some meaning without any verbal context;
b) Accompanying and emphasizing some verbal piece of
communication;
c) Adjusting the communication process, i.e establishing,
maintaining and finishing the act of communication. (Cit. on Feldman, 1992:23)
Professor Kreidlin names the kinemes of the first group emblems.
He considers them to be autonomous and “they can act isolately in the
process of communication.
Kreidlin divides emblems from the semantic point of view
on two large subclasses – “communicative and symptomatic emblems”.
Communicative emblems according to professor Kreidlin are
the emblems that provide the communicator with information on purpose. The
largest class of communicative gestures is neutral communicative gestures
(“common gestures”). The other two subclasses of communicative gestures
form
-
indicatory
-
and etiquette communicative gestures.
The example of communicative gestures can be to
bend ones head, to put a finger against one’s lips, to give a wink, to shake
one’s head, to shake fist at, to turn away. Symptomatic gestures express
the emotional state of the communicator. These are the following gestures: to
bite one’s lips, to thrum, to stand up, to stamp etc.
The second type of the gestures is called illustrative.
Unlike Communicative gestures they cannot be used separately of the verbal
context and cannot impart the meaning independently. The gestures are as
follows: to lower one’s eyelid while pronouncing the affirmative
sentence, open hands upwards indicating that the communicator is
planning to change the subject of the conversation/ (Ex. “..And now...”)
The third type of the gestures according to professor Kreidlin
is controllers. They can be presented either parallel withe speech
itself or without it. An example of these can be a nod, to close and
open one’s eyes periodically, to shake one’s head. (Hargie, Dickson,
2004:189)
In his book “Men and Women in Nonverbal Communication”
professor Kreidlin states that: “Gender differences are remarkable within the
use of emblems of hands, legs and head in particular. Besides obvious
contradictions in forms of realisation of one and the same gesture, there are
discrepancies of some male and female forms of expression the same meaning of
body language.
For instance, expressing the embarrassment men very often
rub their chin or nose and women rub their cheeks or the upper part of the
breast.
Thus, most of the scientists insist that although
non-verbal communication can stand alone, it frequently works with speech. “Our
words carry part of the message, and non-verbal signals carry the rest”.
Experts in non-verbal communication suggest that it have
six specific functions. Here we have the classification by Wiener M., Devoe S.,
and Geller J.:
-
to provide information, either consciously or unconsciously;
-
to regulate the flow of conversation;
-
to express emotion
-
to qualify, complement, contradict, or expand verbal
message;
-
to control or influence others;
-
to facilitate specific tasks, such as teaching a person
to swing a golf club. (See Argyle, 1988:38)
In works of Ahmed A.Khan we may find a similiar specification
of functions of non-verbal communication. He covers it from the speaker’s point
of view: “there are numerous functions of non-verbal behaviour – even if he or
she is not aware of them. Human beings use non-verbal means to persuade or to
control others, to clarify or embelish things, to stress, complement, regulate
and repeat verbal expression. (Access – www.strangehorizons,com)
They can also be used to sibstitute verbal expression, as
this is the case with several body gestures.” He considers non-verbal communication
to be emotionally expressive and “so any discourse appealing to the receiver’s
emotions has a persuasive impact.” Khan dwells upon the idea that non-verbal
behaviour “predates” verbal communication because “individuals, since birth,
rely first on non-verbal means to express themselves.
This innate character of non-verbal behaviour is important
in communication...” The hearer obseves the body gestures and facial
expressions of the speaker, even before a sentence is uttered, “trying to make
sense of these symbolic messages”.
Although many non-verbal means are innate and universal,
(i.e. people in different cultures have a common understanding of these cues),
the contribution of non-verbal communication to the total meaning of a
discourse can be culturally determined and differ in different countries.
Generations of ancient tribes made do with non-verbal
means of communication to fulfill their requirements before they latched on to
a language. Most scolars and researchers incline to oa opinion that whatever
the means of non-verbal communication may be, it will have to be related with
senses of the communicators for it is the senses wich receive information.
In the view of the above given information there can be
defined several means of non-verbal communication.
1.Body posture
Body posture is the bearing or the position of the
speaker’s body. It is a more or less stable and thus not to be confused with
body gestures which are movements. Body posture can be characteristic and
assumed for a special purpose or it can correspond to the normal expectations
in the context of a particular situation. A person can be lying down, seating
or standing. Normally, these are not the elements of posture that convey
messages. But when the speaker is slouched or erect, his or her legd crossed or
arms folded, such postures convey a degree of formality or relaxation. They can
transfer symbolic messages on the orator’s attitude orintention with regard to
the message.
2. Body gestures
A body gesture is a movement made with a limb, especially
the hands, to express, confirm, emphasize or back up the speaker’s attitude or
intention. This non-verbal activity is regularly used in oral discourse. If a
body act requires no verbal accompaniment, it is called an “emblem”. Examples
are: hand signals such as waving good-bye, the ‘V’ for victory sign or the
‘high five’ signaling victory. While some emblems, for instance a clenched
fist, have universal meaning and there are other that are “idiosyncratic or
culturally conditioned”. The use of the zero shape made by the fingers, for example,
does not mean the same in different cultures. Standing for “OK” in the UK, it may be a vulgar expression in South American cultures.
Getures can be ambiguous or unambiguous. Point at water
and then point to your mouth. This is an example of an unambiguous gesture –
another person watching you is almost certain to understand that you want to
drink water. There is hardly any chance of misinterpretation here. Body gestures
are always perceived and interpreted together with facial expressions.
3. Facial expressions and eye contact
Facial expression or it can be called mimic is “expressive
motions of facial muscles, an ability to state one’s thoughts and emotions”.
Such a definition of this kind of gesture we may find in a book entitled “Body
language” by Mironova T. Facial expression are dynamic features which communicate
the speaker’s attitude, emotions, intentions and so on. The face is the primary
source of emotions. During oral communication, facial expressions change
continually and are constantly monitored and interpreted by the receiver.
Examples are: a smile, a frown, raised eyebrow, yawn or sneer. (Hurgie,
Dickson, 2004:35)
According to the works “there is a natural facial
expression and an artificial or immitative. The latter is frequently used by
actors to import this or that feeling. If you observe a person’s facial gesture
you can know his state of mind. It is quite obvious that if a man is frowning
thereis a problem that troubles him. If a man is smiling than he is glad”. (Manusov,
1995:470)
Eye movement is also a key part of facial behaviour
because “the eyes are invariably involvedin facial displays. The different
forms are observed to be cross-cultural. The frequency of eye contact may
suggest either interest or boredom or may even betray dishonesty. The direct
stare of the speaker can show candour or openness. Downward glances are
generally assosiated with modesty; eyes rolled upwards are conveyed asa sign of
fatigue.
Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas
reveal our emotional state better than others. For instans, the eyes tend to
show hapiness or surprise; a smile, for one, can communicate friendliness or
cooperation. As for the lower face, brow and forhead are known to reveal mostly
anger.
As for the spheres of non-verbal means disposal, that can
be found important in any sort of occupation concerning communication. The most
prominent example is given in the web-book by Debra L. Roter where the author
shows the practical advantage of knowing the Body Language in a hospital.
According to Debra L. Roter, “good communication can
encourage patients to adhere to treatment recommendations, cope with the
psychological ramifications of their illness, and have a better clinical
outcome. Determine your need to improve your nonverbal signals and your need to
improve your ability to interpret signals sent by your patients.
Practice overcoming any bad habits, until you are
confident that you are proficient in body language. It is important to remember
that all nonverbal communication is interpreted, correctly or incorrectly.
The best way to minimize misinterpretation is to match
your nonverbal communication with the impression you want to make. If you are
unsure of the nonverbal messages you are relaying to patients, videotape some
of your consultations to see what messages you are unconsciously sending.
Encourage your colleagues to do the same, and exchange comments. There is ample
evidence that training in communication, including nonverbal behavior is
effective. Your heightened awareness of the need to acknowledge patients'
nonverbal behavior should enrich the relationships you have with your patients
and the quality of healthcare you offer them. "(Hurgie, Dickson, 2004:65)
Conclusions to the first chapter:
Researching of humans’ behavior stated that verbal communication takes still
only 7% and non-verbal communication – 55% of all everyday communication.
Gestures are very important form the very beginning of a conversation to know
if the person is interested or not, sincere or pretender.
Summing up the above definitions and classifications of
non-verbal communication and its means, we may come to a conclusion that there
is plenty of ways and methods to express and decode the information, idea,
mood, emotions and even intentions of a person. But the implementation of such
knowledge in real life could be placed in doubt.
In the whole, the gestures or kinemes can be
subdivided to five subclasses:
- hand gestures,
- leg and head gestures,
- facial expressions,
- postures and manners.
Experts of non-verbal communication suggest six specific
functions of nonverbal patterns:
1. Gestures that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
2. Some gestures and the kinesics conduct on the whole
can contradict the speech act.
3. Gestures that substitute the act of speech.
4. Gestures can emphasize and reinforce some components of
speech.
5. Gestures that can supply the speech.
6. Gestures that perform the role of an adjustment of
verbal communication.
chapter II. Characteristic of
modern non-VERBAL COMMUNNICATION (gender aspect)
2.1.
notion of gender aspect
There is much discussion in the literature on the
different uses or understandings of the terms 'sex' and 'gender'. Definitions
are reworked and reconstructed as ideologies and theories change over time.
The following definition is representative of the current
literature: Whereas sex is generally the term used to indicate
biological difference, gender is the term used to indicate psychological,
social and cultural difference. (Claes, 1999:431)
Gender is determined by social practice and social
practice is historically located. As our understandings develop over time,
research findings are interpreted differently depending on current ideologies,
attitudes and viewpoints. Gender and sexual identities are constantly in a
process of change in response to wider social and familial transformation.
(David, 2001:121)
Therefore femininity and masculinity should be seen
as historically mutable (Claes, 1999:430). Postmodern authors warn that
"to separate the two, regarding sex as reflecting natural anatomical
differences and gender as a matter of cultural identity, is ultimately
inadequate and overly simplistic" (Flax, cited in Fredrick & Atkinson,
1997: 40). The concepts of sex and gender are not fixed and static but always
in process.
One of the areas to which gender has been widely applied
is language. Gender, language and the relation between them are all social
constructs or practices, under constant development by a group of individuals
united in a common activity, e.g. a family, a sports team, colleagues, etc.
It is important to note that although many researchers
have highlighted linguistic variations in male and female speech patterns (e.g.
Tannen, 1990, 2001; Spender, 1980), differences in speech patterns may be
attributable also to status, age, ethnicity, geographic location and education.
(See Chapter 3)
Both similarities and differences may be found between
groups and within groups; the complexity means that overly simplistic gender
attributions may be wide of the mark. Davis (cited in Claes, 1999) reminds us
that generalizing about language use on the basis of socio-cultural constructs
such as gender or ethnicity is problematic and can perpetuate a stereotype
based on the assumption of group homogeneity. There are multiple
interpretations of femininity and masculinity and behaviors can vary across
time and context.
For example, a woman in senior management may adopt a more
masculine management style in order to 'fit in' with the dominant culture,
sometimes becoming an 'honorary male' in the process. In addition, this
co-option process may have its impact on men who may feel pressured to conform
to the dominant image of an existing managerial model. Other women survive
using their own communication styles in more female friendly sections of the organization,
while there are others who continue to 'rock the boat' (Peters, 2001:134),
eventually deciding to leave in search of a more supportive environment.
There are currently two approaches to perceived gender
differences in conversation styles: one stresses the dominance factor; the
other, the cultural factor.
The former focuses on the unequal distribution of power in
society: men have more social power, which enables them to define and control
situations. The latter stresses socialization: men and women learn different
communication strategies and develop distinct conversational styles because they
belong to different subcultures. (Canary, Emmers-Sommer & Faulkner, 1997:79)
As with most debates, the boundaries are blurred, and issues of power and
culture intersect.
There are currently two approaches to perceived gender
differences in conversation styles: one stresses the dominance factor; the
other, the cultural factor. Many researchers and writers agree that
masculinity and femininity are not opposites, but mutually overlapping
constructs with multiple masculinities and multiple femininities.
2.2.
masculinities
In every known body language there exist typical masculine
postures, hand and head gestures (which include facial and eye gestures).
According to R.Connell these are “to lean back on an easy chair, to scratch
the back of the head, to rub hands, to slam fist on the table. Masculine
gestures can also be the following emblem – to stroke beard or to rub one’s
chin” He also specifies that it a true masculine gesture to platform one’s
chin on one’s pal, when a man is thinking; or pulls earlap, rubs
forhead, cheeks or the backside of his neck. (Connell, 1995:30)
The most indicative masculine gestures we may find during
flirtation. R.Connell emphasizes the following gestures: “If a man wears a tie,
he would straighten it for sure. If he does not have any, he would produce many
others instead. He would touch his cuff links, start smothing his collar, adjust
the lappets, and shake the dust off his shoulder. He would tidy his hair or
even take a brush and start combing his hair. All this proves the fact that a
man wants to look more attractive.”
Author considers that there are also certain aggressive
masculine gestures during flirtation. Thus, showing the hands and hidding the
thumbs behind the belt is an attempt to attract a woman’s attention towards his
genitors. The same aim a man pursues subconsciously when he leans against the
wall or sits with his legs wide. Men also tend to keep greater distances between
themselves and others and exhibit weaker nonverbal communication skills than do
women.
A man expresses his interest towards a woman when he sets
his leg forward, bents his body or gives a long intimate look. If his hands on
his hips, therefore he wants to look broad and strong.
There are some other typical masculine gestures proffessor
Kreidlin points out in behaviour of pupils. He concludes that using the
following gestures boys express their strength, independance and adultry. They
have their hands in pockets; raise their chins with a proud posture.
They show their disregard and the absence of interest
towards the girls by turning away or standing half-turn when the latter come up
to them. On the other hand boys always address girls but very often in
aggressive way.
D.Tannen defines five types of ducking that are
characteristic of many cultures and nationalities during the greeting.
a)
a straight head;
b)
a head bent forward;
c)
a head thrown back;
d)
a head bent aside;
e)
Advanced chin. (Tannen, 1990:111)
According to their research, men prefer the first and the
last way.
It is typical of male behaviour to rub achin or nose to
express the embarrassment; they accompany the phrase “Never!” with a shake of
the head. Also we may find in his works such male gestures as kissing hands,
hand push.
Sometimes people from different
cultures misread an intentional signal, and sometimes they overlook the signal
entirely or assume that a meaningless gesture is significant.
For example, an Arab man
indicates a romantic interest in a woman by running a hand backward across
his hair; most Americans would dismiss this gesture as meaningless. On the
other hand, an Egyptian might mistakenly assume that a Westerner sitting
with the sole of his her shoe showing is offering a grave insult.
The most indicative masculine gestures we may find during
flirtation. There are five types of mascunalities characteristic of
many cultures and nationalities during the greeting.
f)
a straight head;
g)
a head bent forward;
h)
a head thrown back;
i)
a head bent aside;
j)
Advanced chin.
2.3. FEMININETIES
Feminine style of kinetic behaviour, as well as masculine,
reflects in special gestures, postures, gaits and manners. Females’ typical
gestures are, for example, to do up hair, to bend one’s head a bit, to walk
swinging the hips, to slap in the face, to clamp one’s knees, to swing one’s
foot. (Fletcher, 1999:89)
On his opinion the most typical
combinations of feminine gestures can be seen in postures. “A woman’s posture
has a definite frontal orientation towards the person whom she likes and side
orientation towards the person whom she dislikes. If she is interested in a
person her hands are open and a bit detained from her body, there is a smile on
her face. It is quite on the contrary when she dislikes the person – her hands
are pressed against her body, no smile on the face.”
Professor Kreidlin notices that it is a true feminine
gesture to incline the head aside expressing her feeling towards the person she
is sitting or standing with at the moment. In his books he emphasizes tempting
feminine gestures and “push away” gestures. Thus, professor Kreidlin specifies
such feminine “push away” gestures as – to yawn, to frown, to shake one’s
head, to cross one’s arms. To make a man stop looking at her a woman often
uses a gesture like to look closely at. (Access -
www.strangehorizons.com)
But the most effective way, as explained by professor
Kreidlin, is to use the combination of gestures. For instance, if a woman with
her arms cross, turns away towards other people and crosses her legs, looks
around the room or stares at the ceiling; frowns or gives the man a cold look
this leaves no doubt about her intentions.
As outlined in some researches most of the motion with the
help of the neck can be submitted as a feminine gesture. The statistics shows
that women use such gestures several times more than men.
In works we come across a great deal of feminine gestures
directed towards the interaction between a woman and a man. She states that the
number of gestures while flirting exceeds the one men have. Gestures very often
are more sophisticated and subtle therefore it causes misunderstanding. Women
as well as men use almost the same gestures to attract attention – they do up
hair, put their thumbs behind the belt. But some gestures obtain another sense.
Thus, they use the posture “hands on hips” to draw the attention to their slim
body or suit.
M. Argyle verifies several typical feminine gestures.
Thus, to smooth one’s clothes is one of the gestures that women use to
attract men’s attention. If a woman is interested in a man she will leer
at him. There are such gestures as to stir one’s hair, to tidy one’s hair or
to touch a necklace on one’s neck all these gestures are ponted to show
a wrist. (Argyle, 1988:106)
The author is sure that a bigger part to flirtation refers
to leg gestures. To cross one’s legs slowly is directed to attract men’s
attention, but clench one’s legs – usually used to estrange men.
Allan Pease defines the following gestures that are
typical for women only. He points out that a woman sets her legs wider if there
is a man near her. While walking a woman uses such gesture as to shake her
hips or to rouge. He also states another feminine gesture – to
rub one’s nose. The meaning of it is that she is telling lies at the moment
or does not trust your words.
L. Carli, S. LaFleur, C. Loeber, F. Connell,R. Geiser’s study
of material from newsgroups and special interest groups revealed that women
used more smiles than men. Unexpectedly this study found that challenges and
flaming were more common in females than in males.
Conclusions to the
second chapter: There are currently two approaches to perceived gender
differences in conversation styles: one stresses the dominance factor; the
other, the cultural factor. Many researchers and writers agree that masculinity
and femininity are not opposites, but mutually overlapping constructs with
multiple masculinities and multiple femininities.
The most indicative masculine gestures we may find during
flirtation. There are five types of mascunalities characteristic of
many cultures and nationalities during the greeting.
k)
a straight head;
l)
a head bent forward;
m) a head
thrown back;
n)
a head bent aside;
o)
Advanced chin.
Feminine style of kinetic behavior, as well as masculine,
reflects in special gestures, postures, gaits and manners.
Females’ typical gestures are:
a) to do up hair,
b) to bend one’s head a bit,
c) to walk swinging the hips,
d) to slap in the face,
e) to clamp one’s knees,
f) to swing one’s foot.
Chapter Iii. The non-verbal means
of communication in the business contacts
3.1. nonverbal communication in the business contacts
The study of the non-verbal communication is very essential
applying to business activities. For one thing, it helps establish credibility
and leadership potential. If you can learn to manage the impression you create
with your body language, facial characteristics, voice, and appearance, you can
do a great deal to communicate that you are competent, trustworthy, and
dynamic.
For example, Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton has developed a
homespun style that puts people at ease, thereby helping them to be more receptive,
perhaps even more open.
Furthermore, if you can learn to read other people's
non-verbal messages, you will be able to interpret their underlying attitudes
and intentions more accurately. When dealing with co-workers, customers, and
clients, watch carefully for small signs that reveal how the conversation is
going. If you aren't having the effect you want, check your words; then, if
your words are all right, try to be aware of the non-verbal meanings you are
transmitting. At the same time, stay tuned to the non-verbal signals that the
other person is sending.
It is very often of great importance to interpret Body
Language correctly especially the gestures of other cultures. Not less important
to avoid those non-verbal signals of your own that may offend your business
partner for one and the same gesture could have absolutely opposite meanings.
S. Gherardi states that: “Misinterpretation of non-verbal behavior
is the pettiest source of disagreement between people that could be avoided.
For instance, not many Americans do know that the Chinese dislike touchings and
tappings upon the shoulder or even hand-shaking.” (Gherardi, 2001: 250 -
Accessed 1 February 2008: www.//global.umi.com)
Business communication can be unsuccessful in case if one
of the communicators fails to notice the non-verbal signals the other one uses
or may consider them of no importance. Thus, a person may rub his head in order
to think and the other one can think it is a common physical gesture. And vice
versa – typical physiological gesture (a yawn) could be misinterpreted as a conscious
non-verbal signal (the absence of interest). (Acker, 1990:155)
Although you can express many things non-verbally, there
are limits to what you can communicate without the help of language. When we
transmit the message in spoken or written form, hoping that someone will hear
or read what we have to say.
Table 2 shows how much time business people devote to the
various types of verbal communication. They use speaking and writing to send
messages; they use listening and reading to receive them.
Table
2. Forms of Business Communication
When we deal with sending
business messages, speaking is more common than writing. Giving instructions,
conducting interviews, working in small groups, attending meetings, and making
speeches are all important activities. Even though writing may be less common,
it is important too. When you want to send a complex message of lasting
significance, you will probably want to put it in writing.
In the whole, people in business
spend more time obtaining information than transmitting it, so to do their jobs
effectively; they need good listening and reading skills.
It is necessary to admit that
non-verbal communication in business contacts is restricted by verbal means of
contacts. Gestures just help to clarify confusing messages.
Among the skills necessary for successful business communication you need
to learn are the following:
1. Showing respect. Learn the ways in which respect is
communicated - through gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating ambiguity. Learn to control your frustration
gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or confusing situation.
3. Looking beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such
things as dress, appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal messages
consistent.
3.2. extralingustic factors of
nonverbal communication in the business contacts
Language (verbal, non-verbal, visual and etc.) is something that enables
people to communicate, but also is something that is handed down culturally as
a living and dominant embodiment of a culture.
It carries in it the history, the ideas, the images, the traditions and
passions of a group of people. Hence non-verbal language is closely linked to human
thought and experience.
As a result of living in different societies,
environments, and climates, people develop special needs, acquire habits and
customs peculiar to themselves, and have experiences (and since words are the
names we give to our experiences, we have language differences, too) which, in
general, result in particular patterns and methods and forms of expression and
relating (communicating) with one another. Many examples of this could be
given.
People in a warm, tropical climate, for example, live
quite differently from people in a northern urban area of Europe.
We need to know about people and their background if we
are to understand their communications. This has important implications for
when you may find yourself doing business in a foreign country. It is important
that you become acquainted with the local culture and be prepared to follow its
rules while you are doing business there.
For example, in some Latin American countries, men stand
quite close together when talking - much closer than we stand in many western
countries. If you, as a Western business executive, were to find yourself in
this situation, find the closeness uncomfortable, and back away, you would very
likely offend your Latin American business friend.
Your action would probably create a communication barrier
because you would appear "cold and stand-offish" to your Latin
American counterpart.
Business people do things differently. People communicate
in terms of their own experiences. The situation may appear unusual to your
frame of reference because it is not within the range of your experience; the
situation may be perfectly "normal" to everyone else.
It is small wonder that we seem always to be surrounded by
wars and rumours of wars. In addition to the barriers of human behaviour and
language, our communication attempts also are complicated by cultural barriers
(which actually are linked with language).
Many cultural differences take the form of nonverbal
communications. The nonverbal area is relatively new and still is being studied
and developed; however, most of us have had enough experience to be aware of
its existence and importance.
One must be careful to keep this area in perspective and
to consider nonverbal elements as only a part of the total communication effort
- while the nonverbal may be important, it is not always the whole story. If a
person frowns while listening to you speak, it may indicate doubt or disagreement;
on the other hand, the person may have a headache or the light may be
bothersome. It is important for you to remain alert to nonverbal signals, but
it is also essential that you decode them accurately.
Gestures can be either ambiguous or unambiguous. Point at
water and then point to your mouth. This is an example of an unambiguous
gesture. Another person watching you is almost certain to understand that you
want to drink water. There is hardly any chance of misinterpretation here.
In our everyday life, we frequently use a combination of
words, gestures, and facial expressions to express our full meaning. Calling
someone an "idiot" with an accompanying smile is different from
saying it without a smile.
In addition, gestures often have different meanings in
different circumstances, depending upon various factors:
-
cultural,
-
geographical,
-
social, etc. (Segerstrale, 1997:80)
For instance, if you nod by moving your head up and
down, in India it means a concurrence, a "yes," whereas the same
gesture in, say, Kuwait would mean the exact opposite, a dissent, a
"no."
In the Indian sub-continent, a woman sometimes uses the
gesture of touching her forefinger to her nose to express
astonishment. In the Middle East, the same gesture stands for "at your service,"
and can be employed by either sex, but is used predominantly by men. In Iran the gesture that stands for "at your service" is to put the palm of one's
right hand over one's right eye.
So differences in body language are a major source of
misunderstanding. We may also make the mistake of assuming that a
non-American who speaks English has mastered the body language of our culture
as well.
It therefore pays to learn some basic differences in the
ways people supplement their words with body movement. Take the signal
for no.
For instance,
-
North Americans shake
their heads back and forth;
-
the Japanese move
their right hands;
-
Sicilians raise
their chins. (Pennycook,
1985:280)
We must underline the great
meaning of taking eye contact. North Americans read each other through
eye contact. They may assume that a person who won't meet our gaze is
evasive and dishonest.
But in many parts of Latin America, keeping your eyes lowered is a sign of respect. It's also a sign of
respect among many black Americans, which some schoolteachers have failed to
learn. When they scold their black students, saying "Look at me when I'm
talking to you," they only create confusion for the children.
What is polite in one country
may be considered rude in another. But there are also certain patterns common
with many different cultures. (See Figure 1)
Figure 1. Examples
of common gestures which have different functions and meanings in different
cultures.
Nonverbal and verbal
communication are normally inseparable, which, for example, is why it may seem
so difficult to use the telephone in a foreign language. It needs to be taught
and practiced situationally, in the right contexts, and with plenty of cultural
input and awareness.
In Arab countries, for example,
it is impolite to take gifts to a man's wife but acceptable to take gifts to
his children.
In Germany, giving a woman a
red rose is considered a romantic invitation, inappropriate if you are
trying to establish a business relationship with her.
In India, you might be invited
to visit someone's home "any time." Being reluctant to make an
unexpected visit, you might wait to get a more definite invitation. But your
failure to take the Indian literally is an insult, a sign that you do not care
to develop the friendship.
Wherever you are, you should not
look out of place. It is necessary to wear something you look natural in,
something you know how to wear and something that fits in with your
surroundings.
For example, a woman dressed in a
tailored suit, even with high heels and flowery blouse, looks startlingly
masculine in a country full of diaphanous saris. More appropriate attire might
be a silky, loose-fitting dress in a bright color. With few exceptions, the
general rule for business is that you should be very buttoned up: conservative
suit and tie for men, dress or skirt-suit for women.
The different cultures an individual is involved with influence each
other. When for instance a person is both a Dutchman and a rock singer, his
Dutchness (language, ethics, etc) will affect his execution of his job as a
singer within rock-culture and vice versa. (Brennan, 1999:13)
Conclusions
to the third chapter: Nonverbal
communication in business contacts is restricted by verbal means of contacts.
Gestures just help to clarify confusing messages.
Among the skills necessary for successful business communication you need
to learn are the following:
1. Showing respect. Learn the ways in which respect is
communicated - through gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating ambiguity. Learn to control your frustration
gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or confusing situation.
3. Looking beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such
things as dress, appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal
messages consistent.
The ways of non-verbal communication differ from culture to culture. We
should be aware of those differences in order not to be misunderstood and to
properly understand other people.
It’s impossible to find pure forms of business communication. A culture
has to be completely isolated and sheltered from external influences, to be
able to exist in a pure form. But also within a specific culture we would find
differentiation through, for example, gender, class and age.
Because of these characteristics, non-verbal business communication has
to be defined as ‘hybrid’.
Chapter IV.
The use of non-verbal means of communication by both genders during job
interview
4.1. The description of the experiment
The general method. The
most appropriate methology of this research was focused observation schedule
with which I made a qualitative analysis based on gender and the non-verbal communication
patterns observed.
2 hours long the job interview of applicants at the
company “Baltic” were attended. The correspondents consisted of 10 females and
10 males. The data were analyzed according to the aforementioned nonverbal
communication categories: proxemics, kinesics, haptics and artifactual communication.
However, due to time constricts attention has been focused
on the first two categories – proxemics and kinesics.
It is estimated that less than 10 % of interpersonal
communication during the interview involved words, the remainder being made up
of voice tone, sounds and a variety of devices such as kinetics (movement),
haptics (touch), oculesics (eye-contact), proxemics (space) and chronomics
(time) as well as posture, sound symbols and silence, which either replace or
accompany words. (See Table 3)
Table 3. The subjects of analysis
|
Kinesics
|
body motions (blushes, shrugs, eye movement,
foot-tapping, drumming fingers)
|
|
Proxemics
|
spatial separation (in relation both the social and
physical environment)
|
|
Haptics
|
touch
|
|
Oculesics
|
eye contact
|
|
Chronemics
|
use of time, waiting, pausing
|
|
Olfactics
|
smell
|
|
Vocalics
|
tone of voice, timbre, volume, speed
|
|
Sound Symbols
|
grunting, mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling,
|
|
Silence
|
absence of sound (muteness, stillness, secrecy)
|
|
Adornment
|
clothing, jewellery, hairstyle
|
|
Posture
|
position of the body (characteristic or assumed)
|
|
Expression
|
frowns, grimaces, smirks, smiles, pouting
|
The following reactions of correspondents were
observed: Table 4.
|
Form
|
Main
Function (in some cultures)
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
|
Shrug (I don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
|
Scratch head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
|
Tone of voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating, turn taking
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
|
Eye movements
|
Deceiving
|
|
Staring/Looking down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
|
Touching, kissing
|
Arousal
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
There were found five types of mascunalities during the
interviews:
a) straight head;
b) head bent forward;
c) head thrown back;
d) head bent aside;
e) advanced chin.
There were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a) to do up hair,
b) to bend one’s head a bit,
c) to walk swinging the hips,
d) to slap in the face,
e) to clamp one’s knees,
f) to swing one’s foot.
4.2.
The data of observation
The job interviews of 22 respondents have demonstrated the
certain differences in the nonverbal communication patterns of female and males.
(See Table 5)
Table 5.
Nonverbal patterns essential for males and females (of total quantity 10 – men
and 10 women).
|
Types of nonverbal
patterns
|
Versions
of nonverbal typology
|
Males before 35 years
|
Males after 35 years
|
Females before 35
years
|
Females after
35 years
|
|
Kinesics
|
body motions
(blushes, shrugs, eye movement, foot-tapping, drumming fingers)
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
|
Proxemics
|
spatial separation (in relation both the social and
physical environment)
|
5
|
5
|
3
|
4
|
|
Haptics
|
touch
|
2
|
1
|
7
|
3
|
|
Oculesics
|
eye contact
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
5
|
|
Chronemics
|
use of time, waiting, pausing
|
4
|
6
|
3
|
4
|
|
Olfactics
|
smell
|
4
|
6
|
5
|
5
|
|
Vocalics
|
tone of voice, timbre, volume, speed
|
5
|
5
|
3
|
5
|
|
Sound Symbols
|
grunting, mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling,
|
7
|
3
|
3
|
4
|
|
Silence
|
absence of sound (muteness, stillness, secrecy)
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
|
Adornment
|
clothing, jewellery, hairstyle
|
4
|
3
|
6
|
4
|
|
Posture
|
position of the body (characteristic or assumed)
|
4
|
4
|
5
|
5
|
|
Expression
|
frowns, grimaces, smirks, smiles, pouting
|
7
|
3
|
7
|
3
|
Men and women tended to follow most patterns in the area
of kinesics reported in the literature review in the second Chapter. (See Table
5)
Table 6. Patterns
in the area of kinesics demonstrated during the interview. Gender aspect.
|
FORM
|
MAIN FUNCTIONS (in some
cultures)
|
MALES
|
FEMALES
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
10
|
10
|
|
Shrug (I don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
7
|
8
|
|
Scratch head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
9
|
1
|
|
Tone of voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
6
|
9
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating, turn taking
|
8
|
5
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
9
|
9
|
|
Eye movements
|
Deceiving
|
8
|
10
|
|
Staring/Looking down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
9
|
9
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
6
|
3
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
10
|
8
|
|
Touching
|
Arousal
|
2
|
7
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
7
|
7
|
The statistics shows that women use such gestures several
times more than men.
Table 7. Patterns
in the area of kinesics demonstrated during the interview. Age aspect.
|
FORM
|
MAIN FUNCTIONS (in some
cultures)
|
Males before
35 years
|
Males after 35 years
|
Females before 35
years
|
Females after
35 years
|
|
Nod (Yes)
|
Repeating
|
7
|
3
|
8
|
2
|
|
Shrug (I don’t know)
|
Substituting
|
4
|
3
|
4
|
4
|
|
Scratch head, quizzical look
|
Complementing
|
7
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
|
Tone of voice, pointing
|
Accenting
|
3
|
3
|
6
|
3
|
|
Hand raised
|
Regulating, turn taking
|
4
|
4
|
2
|
3
|
|
Head shake
|
Contradicting
|
6
|
3
|
6
|
3
|
|
Eye movements
|
Deceiving
|
4
|
4
|
5
|
5
|
|
Staring/Looking down or away
|
Dominating/Submitting
|
5
|
4
|
5
|
4
|
|
Raised fist
|
Aggression
|
5
|
2
|
3
|
3
|
|
Hand-shake
|
Socialising
|
5
|
5
|
2
|
6
|
|
Touching
|
Arousal
|
2
|
0
|
5
|
2
|
|
Over-adornment
|
Boasting
|
5
|
2
|
5
|
2
|
It was found that as age increases the coding proficiency
increases for postures and gestures. The older correspondents are more
proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or facial expressions.
4.3.
The results of observation
According to the Tables 5-7, the data analysis allowed carrying
out comparing gender and age as variables, showing the following noticeable differences in nonverbal
communication:
1. It was found as age increases the coding proficiency
increases for postures and gestures, but not facial expressions.
2. There have been contradictory results showing older
correspondents are more proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or
facial expressions.
Female
indicators
1. It has been consistently found, however, that adult
women are better than men at coding and using nonverbal communication.
2. Research indicates a woman's superior ability in demonstrating
of a variety of nonverbal cues regardless of the age or sex of the sender.
3. Women were more accurate with visual communication. (See
Table 5)
4. Women using a task style were considered less likeable
and therefore less persuasive than men.
Note. It was caused by a causal factor of fostered
in women and care giving is their expected gender role rather than men. The
greater interpersonal sensitivity may be due to disadvantaged status. The
disadvantage creates a greater motive for women to accurately interpret
nonverbal cues.
Women's nonverbal communication ability may be based on
interpersonal cognitive complexity rather than status or value placed on
learned nurturance. It was evidently caused by women's lower status which may
negatively influence perceptions of power and therefore hinder credibility and
persuasiveness.
Male indicators
1. Men were more accurate with vocal communication. (See
Table 5)
2. It was found the task style used by the sender and the
perceived competence, were better predictors of persuasiveness than the
sender's gender.
3. Likableness along with competence was not good
predictors for men's persuasive ability.
Note. If there were high
motivation for the receiver to use the message properly, then they would be
more likely to attend to all communication cues, verbal and nonverbal.
Nonverbal communication during the interviews was formatted with the
extralinguistic factors. (See Figure 2)
Figure
2. Body Concept and Techniques
The resume of analysis
1. Differences in gender have affected the types of
persuasive styles.
2. Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase
perception of power and influence.
3. In sum this research project
has found the evidence that even nonverbal communication patterns reflect
gender differences.
4. Males or females with higher cognitive complexity
showed greater decoding ability.
5. It was found that nervous facial expressions and
indirect eye contact hindered perceptions of power and credibility both with
men and women.
Conclusions to
the fourth chapter: The analytical part of research was aimed at
analysis of the masculine and feminine typical non-verbal behaviors.
There were found five types of mascunalities during the interviews:
a) straight head;
b) head bent forward;
c) head thrown back;
d) head bent aside;
e) advanced chin.
There were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a) to do up hair,
b) to bend one’s head a bit,
c) to walk swinging the hips,
d) to slap in the face,
e) to clamp one’s knees,
f) to swing one’s foot.
It was found that as age increases the coding proficiency
increases for postures and gestures. The older correspondents are more
proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or facial expressions.
The following resumes of carried work can be formulated:
1. Differences in gender have affected the types of
persuasive styles.
2. Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase perception
of power and influence.
3. In sum this research project
has found the evidence that even nonverbal communication patterns reflect
gender differences.
4. Males or females with higher cognitive complexity
showed greater decoding ability.
5. It was found that nervous facial expressions and indirect
eye contact hindered perceptions of power and credibility both with men and
women.
Conclusion
The mirroring of other people's body language is advocated in such fields
as neuro-linguistic programming, so it seems that our intercultural
effectiveness is likely to be enhanced if can at least go some way towards
acting like our counterparts.
Researching of humans’ behavior stated that verbal communication takes
still only 7% and non-verbal communication – 55% of all everyday communication.
Gestures are very important form the very beginning of a conversation to know
if the person is interested or not, sincere or pretender. (See Table 1)
There are 3 elements of communication: (Table 1):
38%
55%
Performance of the purpose of work assumed the
decision of several tasks:
A. The substantive provisions of the theory of nonverbal communication
were considered.
The theoretical part of research has shown the following:
1) There is plenty of ways and methods to express and
decode the information, idea, mood, emotions and even intentions of a person.
2) In the whole, the gestures or kinemes can
be subdivided to five subclasses:
- hand gestures,
- leg and head gestures,
- facial expressions,
- postures and manners.
3) Experts of non-verbal communication suggest six
specific functions of nonverbal patterns:
1. Gestures that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
2. Some gestures and the kinesics conduct on the whole
can contradict the speech act.
3. Gestures that substitute the act of speech.
4. Gestures can emphasize and reinforce some components of
speech.
5. Gestures that can supply the speech.
6. Gestures that perform the role of an adjustment of
verbal communication.
4) Communications in international business more than 90%
of the social content of a message is contained in non-verbal cues.
5) The sending and receipt of non-verbal messages takes place on a subliminal
level and this makes it a much more difficult aspect of international business
communications to master. A person can prepare his speech, find the necessary
argumentation, but if he ignores his partner’s and his own gestures, the negotiations
will not give immediate results or even worse might be deadlock.
6) The ways of non-verbal communication differ from culture to culture.
We should be aware of those differences in order not to be misunderstood and to
properly understand other people.
7) But also within a specific culture we would find differentiation
through, for example, gender, class and age. Because of these characteristics,
non-verbal communication has to be defined as ‘hybrid’.
8) There are currently two approaches to perceived gender
differences in conversation styles:
- one stresses the dominance factor;
- the other, the cultural-experiencel
factor. (See Figure 2)
We see the nonverbal communication during the interviews as formatted
with the extralinguistic factors.
Figure
2. Body Concept and Techniques
All these factors influenced on the situational nonverbal behavior of
correspondents.
9) There are the following general nonverbal skills necessary for
successful business communication:
1. Showing respect. Learn the ways in which respect is
communicated - through gestures, eye contact, and so on - in various cultures.
2. Tolerating ambiguity. Learn to control your frustration
gestures when placed in an unfamiliar or confusing situation.
3. Looking beyond the superficial. Don't be distracted by such
things as dress, appearance, or environmental discomforts.
4. Sending clear messages. Make your verbal and non-verbal
messages consistent.
B. The analytical part of research was aimed at analysis of the masculine
and feminine typical non-verbal behaviors.
The general method of experimental work was focused observation schedule with which I made a qualitative analysis
based on gender and the non-verbal communication patterns observed.
2 hours long the job interview of applicants at the
company “Baltic” were attended. The correspondents consisted of 10 females and
10 males. Due to time constricts attention has been focused on the first two
categories – proxemics and kinesics.
1) There were found five types of mascunalities during the interviews:
a) straight head;
b) head bent forward;
c) head thrown back;
d) head bent aside;
e) advanced chin.
There were found six types of femininities during the interviews:
a) to do up hair,
b) to bend one’s head a bit,
c) to walk swinging the hips,
d) to slap in the face,
e) to clamp one’s knees,
f) to swing one’s foot.
2) The results of observation
are the following:
The data analysis allowed carrying out comparing gender and age as
variables, showing the following noticeable differences in nonverbal communication:
1. It was found as age increases the coding proficiency
increases for postures and gestures, but not facial expressions.
2. There have been contradictory results showing older
correspondents are more proficient at coding gestures, but not postures or
facial expressions. (According to the Tables 5-7)
Were determined the following male and female behavior
stereotypes.
Female
indicators
1. It has been consistently found that adult women are
better than men at coding and using nonverbal communication.
2. Research indicates a woman's superior ability in
demonstrating of a variety of nonverbal cues regardless of the age or sex of
the sender.
3. Women were more accurate with visual communication.
(See Table 5)
4. Women using a task style were considered less likeable
and therefore less persuasive than men.
Note. It was caused by a causal factor of fostered
in women and care giving is their expected gender role rather than men. The
greater interpersonal sensitivity may be due to disadvantaged status. The
disadvantage creates a greater motive for women to accurately interpret
nonverbal cues.
Women's nonverbal communication ability may be based on
interpersonal cognitive complexity rather than status or value placed on
learned nurturance. It was evidently caused by women's lower status which may
negatively influence perceptions of power and therefore hinder credibility and
persuasiveness.
Male
indicators
1. Men were more accurate with vocal communication. (See
Table 5)
2. It was found the task style used by the sender and the
perceived competence, were better predictors of persuasiveness than the
sender's gender.
3. Likableness along with competence was not good
predictors for men's persuasive ability.
Note. If there were high
motivation for the receiver to use the message properly, then they would be
more likely to attend to all communication cues, verbal and nonverbal.
The resume of
analysis
1. Differences in gender have
affected the types of persuasive styles.
2. Modes of nonverbal communication needed to increase
perception of power and influence.
3.
The statistics shows that women use such gestures several times more
than men.
4. Males or females with higher
cognitive complexity showed greater decoding ability.
5. It was found that nervous
facial expressions and indirect eye contact hindered perceptions of power and
credibility both with men and women.
6. Masculinity and femininity are not always opposites, but
sometimes in the business sphere mutually overlapping constructs with multiple
masculinities and multiple femininities.
7. In sum
this research project has found the evidence that in the majority of situations
the nonverbal communication patterns reflect gender differences.
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