Contents:
Introductory
1. Common features of non-verbal means
2. Peculiarities of masculine non-verbal means of
communication.
3. Peculiarities of feminine non-verbal means of
communication.
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introductory
There is a
great deal of books, works, essays etc. devoted to peoples’ interaction and
communication where verbal activity definitely plays a very important role.
With the help of many verbal means a person can express his thoughts and
emotions, emphasize main ideas and create the exact atmosphere. But all this
would be of no value and practically impossible to study without the means of
non-verbal communication.
With the help of
facial gestures and getures only many people can impart information and ones emotions
and moods as well. It is worth mentioning a perfomance of the balley-dancers
who would use only motions and gestures to provide the spectators with
information, atmosphere, feelings and characters and not a sound uttered.
Only a century
ago the body language meant a lot for people all over the world. There were no
Television and films broadcasting any sound. Silent movies demanded any actor
to be able to make people laugh and sympathize, cry and be affraid of using
only non-verbal means.
Modern society
has a great deal of communication facilities such as telephone, pager,
cell-phone, internet, telegraph and many others. Thus, gestures of different kinds
are becoming to be less important, as well as studying the meaning of them.
Although many books, works and articles are written to signify the advantages
of gestures, their decodation, many people are unanaware of the most non-verbal
means and this very often leads to confrontation between them. Moreover the
serious studying of non-verbal communication began only in 60-es of ХХ century.
Researchings
of humans’ behavior stated that verbal communication takes still only 7% and
non-verbal communication – 55% of all everyday communication. Gestures are very
important form the very beginning of a conversation to know if the person is
interested or not, sincere or pretender.
It is
considered that women have a better sence of deciphering non-verbal signals, noting
details that men might not observe. Besides, there is a great gap between men
and women in their communication and very often misunderstanding and
misinterpretation can ruin the act of interaction.
Thus, this
course paper focuses on the gender aspect of non-verbal communication, mens’
and womens’ particular types of non-verbal means of interaction and the problem
of communication. The actuality of this topic can be seen in the fact of a
growing number of works, researchings that are devoted to bridging the gap not
only between different cultures but men and women as well.
Chapter 1. Characteristic of modern
non-verbal communnication (gender aspect)
§1. Common features of non-verbal means.
Non-verbal
communication is a silent infiltrator, having broad influence over our social
environment. It provides us with a mode for conveying messages without the use
of verbal language. It may enhance or detract from a verbal communication. It
regulates relationships by affecting the likelihood of introduction and
continued interaction. We are able to infer emotion through nonverbal communication
and influence other's perception of our competence, power and vulnerability. It
also plays a role in the perception of the actual message we are trying to
convey. It affects our lives in a myriad of ways from childhood throughout adulthood,
and as long as we intend to communicate with others.
There are scores
of definitions that researchers and scolars use to define non-verbal
communication.
Non-verbal
communication is usually understood as the process of sending and receiving wordless
messages. Such messages can be communicated through gestures; body language or posture;
facial expression and eye contact.
According to such
scolar as Ahmed A. Khan “non-verbal communication means communication which is
independent of a formal language, communication whereby ideas and concepts can
be expressed without the use of coherent labels”
Professor Kreidlin
G.E. in his book “Men and women in non-verbal communication” (2005) considered
it as: “... a real and not an illusive contact between people”. In his another book
“Non-verbal Semiotics” he states that: “non-verbal communication is one of the
most important field of signs functioning and information, it plays a
significant role in a man’s life”.
Miller G.A. gives
the following definitions of it:”non-verbal communication consists of all the
messages other than words that are used in communication. In oral
communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of intonation,
tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body posture, facial expressions or
pauses.
Leathers D. in
his book “Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications.”
(1997) defines non-verbal communication “as the process by which nonverbal
behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in
the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or
context.”
He views the
communication as a type of some matrix and distincts between verbal and non-verbal
behaviors that can be divided into vocal and non-vocal behaviors.
Such researchers
of non-verbal communication as Wiener M., Devoe S., and Geller J. view it as
“the most basic form of communication”. According to their studies, non-verbal
communication differs from verbal in fundamental ways – “it is less structured
and thus it makes it more difficult to study”. And what is worth mentioning is
that the researchers stated the main difference of non-verbal communication –
“it differs in terms of intent and spontaneity”. Indeed when we say: “please
open the door”, we have a conciuos purpose. We think about the message, if only
for a moment. But when we communicate non-verbaly, we sometimes do so
unconsciously. We do not mean to raise an eyebrow or blush. “Those actions come
naturally; without our consent, our emotions arewritten on our faces.”
The first
scientific study of non-verbal communication was Charles Darwin’s book “The
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872). He argued that all
mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number
of fields, including kinesics, linguistics, semiotics and social psychology. Proxemics
refers to how people use and interpret space.
While much
nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols which differ from culture
to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be
universally understood. Paul Ekman’s influential 1960s studies of facial
expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness
and surprise are universal.
The complementing function of nonverbal
communication includes nonverbal cues -- such as tone of voice, facial
expression, gestures, or distance between people -- often serving to complement
the verbal message and add to, clarify, or reinforce the meaning. The term
"complement" indicates that the behavior alone would not communicate
the intended message. "A complementing nonverbal message changes the
meaning of the verbal message by adding additional insights or
information".
Knowledge of the effects
nonverbal communications introduce is needed, because our awareness may enhance
favorable communication. Non-verbal cues may be unconsciously acted and reacted
upon, regulating proximity, gestures, eye gaze and touch. Each component of
nonverbal behavior affects our relationship and interpersonal environment in
intricate ways. Nonverbal cues provide insight into affect states, influence
another's perception of an individual's competence, persuasiveness, power,
sincerity and vulnerability. In a new age where increasing population is
decreasing personal space, it is imperative to understand cultural and personal
communication differences and similarities.
Thus, we assume that the
most important field of science to be observed in order to specify the range of
our research is kinesics.
Kinesics – is understood as
a central section of non-verbal semiotics science dealing with body language
and its parts. It includes such studies as the study of gestures of hands,
mimic gestures, head and leg gestures and postures. (Kreidlin G.E.)
All gestures play different
part in communication. It mostly depends upon the situation of the interaction.
Here are some of them given by professor Kreidlin:
1.
Getures
that repeat or duplicate the actual oral information.
Ex. to point with the finger, eyes or
head in the direction of somebody/something - such gestures very often
accompany the pronouns: this, here, that, there etc.
2.
Some
gestures and the kinesic conduct on the whole can contradict the speech act.
Thus, a person having said that he is calm and moves disorderly, making
everything impulsive as if contradicts himself. A smile can accompany
not a kind speech, it conceals disappointment, concern. Besides it is a
protection of ones inner world against troubles and miseries.
3.
Gestures
that substitute the act of speech. An example for this is a nod as a way
frequently used to express agreement; a gesture to put a finger against lips
substitutes the expression of Hush! Quiet!
4.
Getures
can emphasize and reinforce some components of speech. This can be the gesture to
stick two fingers up at someone. Also the example of this is to
count with fingers.
5.
Gestures
that can supply the speech. Thus, the gesture to shake fist at somebody
is very often can be added to the actual communication
6.
Gestures
that perform the role of an adjustment of verbal communication. These we may
find when a person wants to cut the speaker short to dissagree or ask him a
question.
As is shown above,
professor Kreidlin is one of those scholars who mostly deals with gestures or
kinemes which according to him “can be subdevided to five subclasses:
hand gestures, leg and head gestures, facial expressions, postures and
manners.”
In works by professor
Kreidlin we find the following devision of kinemes: “ three classes of kinemes
are: a) kinemes with their own lexical meaning that transfer some meaning
without any verbal context; b) accompanying and emphasizing some verbal piece
of communication; c) adjusting the communication process, i.e establishing,
maintaining and finishing the act of communication.”
Professor Kreidlin names the kinemes
of the first group emblems. He considers them to be autonomous and “they
can act isolately in the process of communication.
Kreidlin devides emblems
from the semantic point of view on two large subclasses – “communicative and symptomatic
emblems”.
Communicative emblems
according to professor Kreidlin are the emblems that provide the communicator
with information on purpose. The largest class of communicative gestures is
neutral communicative gestures (“common gestures”). The other two subclasses of
communicative gestures form indicatory and etiquette communicative gestures.
The example of communicative gestures
can be to bend ones head, to put a finger against one’s lips, to give a
wink, to shake one’s head, to shake fist at, to turn away. Symptomatic
gestures express the emotional state of the communicator. These are the
following gestures: to bite one’s lips, to thrum, to stand up, to stamp
etc.
The second type of the
getures is called illustrative. Unlike Communicative gestures they cannot be
used separately of the verbal context and cannot impart the meaning independently.
The gestures are as follows: to lower one’s eyelid while pronouncing
the affirmative sentence, open hands upwards indicating that the communicator
is planning to change the subject of the conversation (Ex. “..And now...”)
The third type of the
gestures according to professor Kreidlin is controllers. They can be presented
either parallel withe speech itself or without it. An example of these can be a
nod, to close and open one’s eyes periodically, to shake one’s head.
In his book “Men and Women
In Nonverbal Communication” professor Kreidlin states that: “Gender differences
are remarkable within the use of emblems of hands, legs and head in particular.
Besides obvious contradictions in forms of realisation of one and the same
gesture, there are discrepancies of some male and female forms of expression
the same meaning of body language. For instance, expressing the embarrassment
men very often rub their chin or nose and women rub their cheeks or the upper
part of the breast.
Thus, most of the
scientists insist that although non-verbal communication can stand alone, it
frequently works with speech. “Our words carry part of the message, and non-verbal
signals carry the rest”.
Experts in non-verbal
communication suggest that it have six specific functions. Here we have the
classification by Wiener M., Devoe S., and Geller J.:
-
to
provide information, either consciously or unconsciously;
-
to regulate
the flow of conversation;
-
to
express emotion
-
to
qualify, complement, contradict, or expand verbal message;
-
to
control or influence others;
-
to
facilitate specific tasks, such as teaching a person to swing a golf club.
In works of Ahmed A.Khan we may find
a similiar specification of functions of non-verbal communication. He covers it
from the speaker’s point of view: “ there are numerous functions of non-verbal
behaviour – even if he or she is not aware of them. Human beings use non-verbal
means to persuade or to control others, to clarify or embelish things, to
stress, complement, regulate and repeat verbal expression. They can also be
used to sibstitute verbal expression, as this is the case with several body
gestures.” He considers non-verbal communication to be emotionally expressive
and “so any discourse appealing to the receiver’s emotions has a persuasive
impact.” Khan dwells upon the idea that non-verbal behaviour “predates” verbal
communication because “individuals, since birth, rely first on non-verbal means
to express themselves. This innate character of non-verbal behaviour is important
in communication...” The hearer obseves the body gestures and facial expressions
of the speaker, even before a sentence is uttered, “trying to make sense of these
symbolic messages”.
Although many non-verbal
means are innate and universal, (i.e. people in different cultures have a
common understanding of these cues), the contribution of non-verbal
communication to the total meaning of a discourse can be culturally determined
and differ in different countries.
Generations of ancient
tribes made do with non-verbal means of communication to fulfill their
requirements before they latched on to a language. Most scolars and researchers
incline to oa opinion that whatever the means of non-verbal communication may
be, it will have to be related with senses of the communicators for it is the
senses wich receive information.
In the view of the above
given information there can be defined several means of non-verbal communication.
Body posture
Body posture is the bearing or the
position of the speaker’s body. It is a more or less stable and thus not to be
confused with body gestures which are movements. Body posture can be
characteristic and assumed for a special purpose or it can correspond to the
normal expectations in the context of a particular situation. A person can be
lying down, seating or standing. Normally, these are not the elements of
posture that convey messages. But when the speaker is slouched or erect, his or
her legd crossed or arms folded, such postures convey a degree of formality or
relaxation. They can transfer symbolic messages on the orator’s attitude
orintention with regard to the message.
Body gestures
A body gesture is a
movement made with a limb, especially the hands, to express, confirm, emphasize
or back up the speaker’s attitude or intention. This non-verbal activity is
regularly used in oral discourse. If a body act requires no verbal
accompaniment, it is called an “emblem”. Examples are: hand signals such as
waving good-bye, the ‘V’ for victory sign or the ‘high five’ signaling victory.
While some emblems, for instance a clenched fist, have universal meaning and
there are other that are “idiosyncratic or culturally conditioned”. The use of
the zero shape made by the fingers, for example, does not mean the same in
different cultures. Standing for “OK” in the UK, it may be a vulgar expression
in South American cultures.
Getures can be ambiguous
or unambiguous. Point at water and then point to your mouth. This is an example
of an unambiguous gesture – another person watching you is almost certain to
understand that you want to drink water. There is hardly any chance of
misinterpretation here. Body gestures are always perceived and interpreted
together with facial expressions.
Facial expressions and eye
contact
Facial expression or it
can be called mimic is “expressive motions of facial muscles, an ability to
state one’s thoughts and emotions”. Such a definition of this kind of gesture
we may find in a book entitled “Body language” by Mironova T. Facial expression
are dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude, emotions,
intentions and so on. The face is the primary source of emotions. During oral
communication, facial expressions change continually and are constantly
monitored and interpreted by the receiver. Examples are: a smile, a frown,
raised eyebrow, yawn or sneer.
According to the works by
Mironova T., “there is a natural facial expression and an artificial or
immitative. The latter is frequently used by actors to import this or that
feeling. If you observe a person’s facial gesture you can know his state of
mind. It is quite obvious that if a man is frowning thereis a problem that
troubles him. If a man is smiling than he is glad”.
Eye movement is also a key
part of facial behaviour because “the eyes are invariably involvedin facial
displays. The different forms are observed to be cross-cultural. The frequency
of eye contact may suggest either interest or boredom or may even betray
dishonesty. The direct stare of the speaker can show candour or openness.
Downward glances are generally assosiated with modesty; eyes rolled upwards are
conveyed asa sign of fatigue.” (Wiener M., Devoe S., and Geller J). Researchers
have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better
than others. For instans, the eyes tend to show hapiness or surprise; a smile,
for one, can communicate friendliness or cooperation. As for the lower face,
brow and forhead are known to reveal mostly anger.
Summing up the above definitions
and classifications of non-verbal communication and its means, we may come to a
conclusion that there is plenty of ways and methods to express and decode the
information, idea, mood, emotions and even intentions of a person. But the
implementation of such knowledge in real life could be placed in doubt.
Nevertheless, according to
Mironova: “Non-verbal signals are very important during business communication.
A person can prepare his speech, find thte necessary argumentation, but if he
ignores his partner’s and his own gestures, the negotiations will not give
immediate results or even worse might be deadlock.” It is very often of great
importance to interpret Body Language correctly especially the gestures of
other cultures. Not less important to avoid those non-verbal signals of your
own that may offend your business partner for one and the same gesture could
have absolutely opposite meanings. An American researcher G. Miller states
that: “Misinterpretation of non-verbal behaviour is the pettiest source of dissagreement
between people that could be avoided. For instance, not many Americans do know
that the Chinese dislike touchings and tappings upon the shoulder or even
hand-shaking.”
Business communication can
be unsuccessful in case if one of the communicators fails to notice the non-verbal
signals the other one uses or may consider them of no importance. Thus, a
person may rub his head in order to think and the other one can think it is a
common physical gesture. And vice versa – typical physiological gesture (a
yawn) could be misinterpreted as a concious non-verbal signal (the absence of
interest).
As for other spheres of non-verbal
means disposal that can be found important in any sort of occupation concerning
communication. The most prominent example is given in the web-book by Debra L.
Roter where the author shows the practical advantage of knowing the Body
Language in a hospital. According to Debra L. Roter: “good communication can
encourage patients to adhere to treatment recommendations, cope with the
psychological ramifications of their illness, and have a better clinical
outcome. Determine your need to improve your nonverbal signals and your need to
improve your ability to interpret signals sent by your patients. Practice
overcoming any bad habits, until you are confident that you are proficient in
body language. It is important to remember that all nonverbal communication is
interpreted, correctly or incorrectly. The best way to minimize misinterpretation
is to match your nonverbal communication with the impression you want to make.
If you are unsure of the nonverbal messages you are relaying to patients,
videotape some of your consultations to see what messages you are unconsciously
sending. Encourage your colleagues to do the same, and exchange comments. There
is ample evidence that training in communication, including nonverbal behavior
is effective. Your heightened awareness of the need to acknowledge patients'
nonverbal behavior should enrich the relationships you have with your patients
and the quality of healthcare you offer them. “
Hereabove, importance of
studying and learning the gestures and the use of them is transparently
imparted. New life terms, social conventions and roles have caused a drastic
change of cultural and communicative traditions, as well as changes in
structure and style of communication between both genders and sometimes even a
conflict.
Men and women’s non-verbal
behaviour and body signs play a significant role in oral communication. Oscar
Wilde wrote: “A man’s face is his autobiography; a woman’s face is her work of
fiction”. Life in modern postindustrial world has evidently changed the role
of genders and their interaction. During this period of globalisation and integration,
male and female functions and personal characteristics underwent cardial
developments. Gradually, woman’s social passiveness becomes history as well as
her being dependent on a man.
Thus, in this course
paper we would like to specify the most important peculiarities of gender
non-verbal communication. And the essence of it is going to be the analysis of
two genders and their typical non-verbal behaviour.
§1.2. Peculiarities of
masculine non-verbal means of communication..
In every known body language
there exist typical masculine postures, hand and head gestures (which include
facial and eye gestures). According to professor Kreidlin these are “to lean
back on an easy chair, to scratch the back of the head, to rub hands, to slam
fist on the table. Masculine gestures can also be the following emblem – to
stroke beard or to rub one’s chin” He also specifies that it a true masculine
gesture to platform one’s chin on one’s pal, when a man is thinking; or
pulls earlap, rubs forhead, cheeks or the backside of his neck.
The most indicative
masculine gestures we may find during flirtation. Mironova T. in her book “Body
language” emphasizes the following gestures: “If a man wears a tie, he would
straighten it for sure. If he does not have any, he would produce many others
instead. He would touch his cuff links, start smothing his collar, adjust the
lappets, and shake the dust off his shoulder. He would tidy his hair or even
take a brush and start combing his hair. All this proves the fact that a man
wants to look more attractive.”
Mironova considers that
there are also certain aggressive masculine gestures during flirtation. Thus,
showing the hands and hidding the thumbs behind the belt is an attempt to
attract a woman’s attention towards his genitors. The same aim a man pursues
subconsciously when he leans against the wall or sits with his legs wide. Men also tend to keep greater distances between
themselves and others and exhibit weaker nonverbal communication skills than do
women.
A man expresses his
interest towards a woman when he sets his leg forward, bents his body or gives
a long intimate look. If his hands on his hips, therefore he wants to look
broad and strong.
There are some other
typical masculine gestures proffessor Kreidlin points out in behaviour of
pupils. He concludes that using the following gestures boys express their
strength, independance and adultry. They have their hands in pockets, raise
their chins with a proud posture.
They show their disregard
and the absence of interest towards the girls by turning away or standing
half-turn when the latter come up to them. On the other hand boys always
address girls but very often in aggressive way.
Adam Kendon and Andrew
Ferber define five types of ducking that are characteristic of many cultures
and nationalities during the greeting.
a)
a
straight head;
b)
a head
bent forward;
c)
a head
thrown back;
d)
a head
bent aside;
e)
Advanced
chin.
According to their research, men
prefer the first and the last way.
Professor Kreidlin
considers that it is typical of male behaviour to rub achin or nose to
express the embarrassment; they accompany the phrase “Never!” with a shake of
the head. Also we may find in his works such male gestures as kissing hands,
hand push.
§1.3. Peculiarities of feminine
non-verbal means of communication.
Feminine style of kinetic
behaviour, as well as masculine, reflects in special gestures, postures, gaits
and manners.
This is very well shown by
professor Kreidlin: “Females’ typical gestures are, for example, to do up
hair, to bend one’s head a bit, to walk swinging the hips, to slap in the face,
to clamp one’s knees, to swing one’s foot.
On his opinion the most
typical combinations of feminine gestures can be seen in postures. “A woman’s
posture has a definite frontal orientation towards the person whom she likes
and side orientation towards the person whom she dislikes. If she is
interested in a person her hands are open and a bit detained from her body, there
is a smile on her face. It is quite on the contrary when she dislikes the
person – her hands are pressed against her body, no smile on the face.”
Professor Kreidlin notices
that it is a true feminine gesture to incline the head aside expressing her
feeling towards the person she is sitting or standing with at the moment. In
his books he emphasizes tempting feminine gestures and “push away” gestures.
Thus, professor Kreidlin specifies such feminine “push away” gestures as – to
yawn, to frown, to shake one’s head, to cross one’s arms. To make a man
stop looking at her a woman often uses a gesture like to look closely at.
But the most effective
way, as explained by professor Kreidlin, is to use the combination of gestures.
For instance, if a woman with her arms cross, turns away towards other people
and crosses her legs, looks around the room or stares at the ceiling; frowns or
gives the man a cold look this leaves no doubt about her intentions.
As outlined in some
researches most of the motion with the help of the neck can be submitted as a
feminine gesture. The statistics shows that women use such gestures several
times more than men.
In works by Mironova T. we
come across a great deal of feminine gestures directed towards the interaction
between a woman and a man. She states that the number of gestures while
flirting exceeds the one men have. “Gestures very often are more sophisticated
and subtle therefore it causes misunderstanding. Women as well as men use
almost the same gestures to attract attention – they do up hair, put their
thumbs behind the belt. But some gestures obtain another sense. Thus, they use
the posture “hands on hips” to draw the attention to their slim body or suit.”
Mironova T. in her book
“Body Language” verifies several typical feminine gestures. Thus, to smooth
one’s clothes is one of the gestures that women use to attract men’s
attention. If a woman is interested in a man she will leer at him. There
are such gestures as to stir one’s hair, to tidy one’s hair or to
touch a necklace on one’s neck all these gestures are ponted to show a
wrist.
The author is sure that a
bigger part to flirtation refers to leg gestures. To cross one’s legs slowly
is directed to attract men’s attention, but clench one’s legs – usually
used to estrange men.
Allan Pease defines the
following gestures that are typical for women only. He points out that a woman
sets her legs wider if there is a man near her. While walking a woman uses such
gesture as to shake her hips or to rouge. He also states
another feminine gesture – to rub one’s nose. The meaning of it is that
she is telling lies at the moment or does not trust your words.
Witmer and Katzman (1997)
study of material from newsgroups and special interest groups revealed that
women used more smiles than men (Witmer and Katzman, 1997, p.36). Unexpectedly
this study found that challenges and flaming were more common in females than
in males.
Conclusion
Considering what has been mentioned
above, we may draw the line stating that although non-verbal communication means
have a great importance to a person in the nowadays world, the knowledge of it
still needs to be specified and categorized in full. It is a well known fact
that many scientists and scolars began to study gestures and their meanings and
functions in the 60-es of the last century; therefore a relatively young
science is being formed and expanded. Too many questions remain unanswered and
aspects to be studied thoroughly. Almost all linguists are aware of gender
linguistics but few people are aware of the non-verbal communication (or
non-verbal semiotics (Kreidlin G.E.)) as a science discipline that studies a
body placed in culture and society and body signs that form a body language.
In our course paper we
have touched one of the most interesting and contradicting aspects – gender. It
can be not so complicated to learn all the rules of non-verbal behaviour in a
professional sphere, business communication or certain social group. But it far
more difficult to study the reasons of misunderstanding in interaction of both
genders. Thus, if a representative of one gender is aware of the meaning of
this or that gesture it might help him or her choose the correct way of
behaviour and therefore avoid misinterpretations and conflicts that happen so
often in up to date world.
In our future research, we
will define gender common stereotypes and disclose the sources of typical male
and female means of non-verbal communication. Besides, with the help of a
number of methods we will try to analyse and classify gestures that both
genders use in different professional spheres.
Bibliography:
• Leathers, D. (1997). (3rd. ed.) Successful Nonverbal Communication:
Principles and Applications.
• Knapp, M. L., & Hall, J. A. (1997). Nonverbal communication in human
interaction. (4th ed.)
• Segerstrale, U., & Molnar, P. (1997). (Eds). Nonverbal Communication:
Where Nature Meets Culture.
• Malandro, L. A., and Barker, L. (1983). Nonverbal Communication. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.